引言(Introduction)
当罗伯特·贝尔(Robert Bell),一位成功而广受尊敬的费城印刷商(a successful and widely respected Philadelphia printer),于 1776 年 1 月 9 日出版(issued)《常识》(Common Sense)时,他承担了相当大的风险(took a considerable risk)。在十八世纪,印刷商会因出版冒犯性材料(publishing offensive matter)而被追究责任(were held liable),无论那材料是叛国性的(treasonous)、有伤风化的(indecent),还是亵渎宗教的(blasphemous)。而且几乎毫无疑问(there was little question),《常识》直接挑战了(directly contested)英国殖民主义在美洲的权威(the authority of British colonialism in America),从而使贝尔有可能被控叛国(left Bell open to a charge of treason)。虽然只有少数亲近的同伴(close associates)知道他的政治倾向(political inclinations),贝尔支持独立(favored independence)。所以,当他的朋友本杰明·拉什(Benjamin Rush)和本杰明·富兰克林(Benjamin Franklin)——他们都是这座城市最知名的公民(among the city’s best known citizens),也是最广受尊敬的知识人物(most widely respected intellectual figures)——带着《常识》的手稿(the manuscript of Common Sense)来找他时,他倾向于把它印出来(was inclined to print it),并冒着让自己的生意和人身承受后果的风险(risk the consequences to his business and his person)。这场冒险得到了回报(The gamble paid off)。《常识》相当于一本现代意义上的国际畅销书(the equivalent of a modern-day international bestseller)。它在费城立刻引起轰动(caused an immediate sensation),并很快在东部沿海上下各城市(cities up and down the eastern seaboard)被重印(reprinted)。它在法国、德国,甚至在英格兰出版(published in France, Germany, and even in England);在英格兰,它在伦敦出了五版(went through five editions in London),也在爱丁堡和纽卡斯尔出现/出版(appearing in Edinburgh and Newcastle)。1 通过决定出版《常识》(By deciding to publish Common Sense),贝尔给独立运动(the independence movement)带来了一种新的革命声音(a new revolutionary voice)。他也开启了这样一个人的职业生涯(launched the career of a man):这个人后来会证明是(would turn out to be)十八世纪晚期最多产(most prolific)、最有说服力(most persuasive)的作家之一——托马斯·潘恩(Thomas Paine)。
潘恩在各殖民地的许多同时代人(Paine’s contemporaries across the colonies)都评论过《常识》对殖民者情绪(the mood of the colonists)产生的显著影响(remarkable influence)。在这本小册子出版后几周内(Within weeks of the publication of the pamphlet),乔治·华盛顿(George Washington)写信给一位好友,说他确信《常识》这本小册子中所包含的“可靠主张(sound Doctrine)和无法反驳的论证(unanswerable reasoning)”,会使大多数殖民者相信“分离的正当性(Propriety of a Separation)”。两个半月之后(Two and a half months later),他又会写信给同一位朋友,以确认这本小册子在他的家乡殖民地造成的影响(confirm the pamphlet’s impact in his home colony):“通过我最近从弗吉尼亚收到的私人信件(private Letters),我发现《常识》正在那里许多人的头脑中产生一种强有力的改变(working a powerful change there in the Minds of many Men)。”比任何其他事件或文本都更重要的是(More than any other event or text),《常识》充当了关键催化剂(served as the key catalyst),推动殖民者走向独立(propelling the colonists to independence)。另一位重要的弗吉尼亚政治人物(Another prominent Virginia political figure)埃德蒙·伦道夫(Edmund Randolph),在把《常识》(Common Sense)归功于改变了关于独立可行性(the viability of independence)的舆论潮流(altering the tide of opinion)时,捕捉到了这种它具有广泛影响(wide influence)的感觉:“几周之前还会因独立所被包围的巨大障碍(the tremendous obstacles, with which independence was environed)而战栗的公众情绪(the public sentiment),越过了每一道屏障(overleaped every barrier)”(306–307)。《常识》的论证是如此有说服力(So compelling was Common Sense’s argument),以至于它不仅推动了美国的独立运动和民主运动(propelled the independence and democracy movements in the United States),而且还激励了欧洲的革命者(inspired revolutionaries in Europe)去在他们自己的国家寻求类似的转变(seek similar transformations in their home countries)。例如,在法国革命早期阶段(During the early stages of the Revolution in France),潘恩被授予荣誉公民身份(was made an honorary citizen),这样他就可以被选入国民公会(be elected to the National Convention);在那里,他还被任命进入一个委员会(was named to the committee),该委员会被委派负责撰写一部新的民主宪法(charged with writing a new democratic constitution)。
然而,在美洲殖民地(In the American colonies),伦道夫所提到的独立障碍(the barriers to independence Randolph referred to)是相当大的(considerable)。如果《常识》说服了许多人去支持激进变革的想法(endorse the idea of radical change),它也激起了许多人去为同大不列颠和解(reconciliation with Great Britain)而辩护。凭借其广泛传播(broad dissemination)和有争议的论点(controversial arguments),《常识》成为热烈辩论的对象(the subject of lively debate),并在报纸上和以小册子形式(in the newspapers and in pamphlet form)引发了大量回应(elicited numerous responses)。在 1776 年上半年(For the first half of 1776),也就是通向《独立宣言》(leading up to the Declaration of Independence)的时期,《常识》为关于大不列颠及其北美殖民地之间未来关系的大部分讨论定下了基调(set the tone)。最重要的是(Most importantly),潘恩的小册子标志着(signaled)围绕殖民地与大不列颠之间已持续十年的冲突(the colonies’ decade-old conflict with Great Britain)的话语(discourse)发生了重大转变(a major shift)。2 如果如华盛顿和伦道夫的叙述所暗示的那样(as Washington and Randolph’s accounts suggest),在它出版之前,很少有人公开谈论独立,把它看作是相对于作为令人敬畏的英帝国(the awe-inspiring British empire)一员而言一种可行的、甚至是值得向往的替代选择(a viable or even desirable alternative),那么在它出版之后,独立就成了许多殖民地领导人眼中一个有吸引力的选项(an attractive option);这些领导人大多数都在费城度过了相当多的时间,而费城是大陆会议所在地(the seat of the Continental Congress)。由于《常识》在革命中发挥了有影响力的作用(its influential role in the Revolution),它吸引了研究这一时期的各种学者(a wide array of scholars of the period)的注意。革命中令学者困惑的问题之一,是潘恩的身份与他的小册子的成功之间那种表面上的不协调(seeming incongruity):一个受教育程度相对有限的(relatively uneducated)、刚到殖民地不久的新近移民(recent immigrant)——离开英格兰才一年3 (only a year removed from England)——怎么会成为这篇重要的美国宣言(manifesto)的作者?为了令人满意地回答这个问题,我们首先必须重新审视(revisit)潘恩在写作《常识》(Common Sense)之前(prior to authoring)的职业经历;但我们也必须重新思考(rethink)我们对于十八世纪晚期英格兰与美国之间差异和相似性的假设(assumptions)。
《常识》那非同寻常且前所未有的成功(remarkable and unprecedented success),也提出了许多重要问题(raises a number of important questions):这些问题关系到殖民地本身,也关系到那些促成(contributed to)殖民地决定脱离英格兰(separate from England)的力量——文化的、政治的、社会的和经济的(cultural, political, social, and economic)。例如,它的广泛吸引力(broad appeal)告诉我们,在革命前夕(on the eve of the Revolution),美国殖民者的心态(mindset)是什么样的?它的流行表明,它触及了(tapped into)殖民地美国人中一种普遍的、但尚未成形的(inchoate)感觉。也就是说,与其想象美国人只是被潘恩支持独立的论证(arguments in favor of independence)说服了(swayed by),更可能的情况是,许多人已经走在同一条道路上(already on the same path),只是还没有有意识地正视并接受(consciously come to terms with)同英格兰切断联系(severing ties with England)这个想法。潘恩把他们的疏离感(alienation)和被背叛感(betrayal)表达成文字(gave words to their feelings),并因此把他们推向了这样一个结论:分离是必要的(separation was necessary)。尽管如此(Nonetheless),我们仍必须探究(inquire into)究竟是什么使这本小册子对读者如此有吸引力(so appealing to readers)。它的修辞(rhetoric)是怎样发挥作用的,如何抓住他们的想象力(capture their imaginations),并把他们进一步推向独立之路(further along the path towards independence)?同样重要的是,潘恩的文字究竟如何发挥作用,去说服一个民族反抗(persuade a people to revolt against)这样一个国家:他们曾经为自己是这个国家的一部分而自豪(proud to be a part),而且他们也明白,这个国家是一个世界强国(world power),在军事和经济上都远比他们强大(far superior militarily and economically)?
本导言将处理这些问题(take up these questions),以试图证明(in an effort to demonstrate):如果我们要理解《常识》(Common Sense)及其成功,我们就必须先理解那个产生它的世界(the world that produced it),然后再去探究潘恩的小册子怎样试图改变那个世界(sought to alter that world)。换句话说(Put another way),在我们理解并处理(coming to terms with)《常识》如何以及为何在革命中发挥如此重要作用(came to play such an important part in the Revolution)的过程中,我们也将开始辨明(discern)那些使革命成为可能的文化和政治变化(the cultural and political changes that made the Revolution possible)。随后这一版(The edition that follows)试图重建(attempts to reconstruct)——虽然只是以有限形式(albeit in limited form)——潘恩的小册子出现时的语境(the context in which Paine’s pamphlet appeared),并且在这个过程中,重新捕捉(recapture)围绕北美英国殖民地未来所发生争论(the disputes over the future of the British colonies in North America)中的活力与激情(the energy and passion)。我选取了这一时期若干重要出版物(a number of important publications from the period),这些出版物来自《常识》出版之前不久以及出版之后紧接着的时期(just preceding and immediately following the publication of Common Sense),这样我们就可以看到,潘恩如何吸收当时正在殖民地流传的一些观念(ideas that were circulating in the colonies),并把它们重新塑造(refashions them),以向普通大众读者(a popular audience)推广他关于民主的理想图景(promote his ideal vision of democracy)。对《常识》的回应(The responses to Common Sense)也帮助我们准确地看到,这场争议(controversy)究竟有多么严肃,以及殖民者所面对的选择究竟有多么艰难(how difficult the choice was for the colonists)。我以潘恩《美国危机》(The American Crisis)系列的第一篇作为结尾,是为了说明(to illustrate)潘恩如何继续使用他在《常识》中开创的风格和声音(the style and voice he had inaugurated with Common Sense)来写作。
《常识》值得这样持续而深入的关注(is worth such extended attention),不仅因为它代表了革命中的一个转折点(represented a turning point in the Revolution),也因为它开启了这样一位人物的职业生涯(launched the career):他是十八世纪最坚持不懈(most persistent)、最雄辩(eloquent)、最有活力(energetic)、也最被广泛阅读的民主与民众统治倡导者(most widely read proponent of democracy and popular rule)。正如沃尔特·惠特曼(Walt Whitman)一百年后会说的那样:“我不敢说,我们的联邦今天所拥有并享受的一切——它的独立(its independence),它对激进人权的热烈信念和实质性实践(its ardent belief in, and substantial practice of radical human rights),以及它的政府同一切教会的和迷信的支配相分离(the severance of its government from all ecclesiastical and superstitious dominion)——这一切有多少是归因于托马斯·潘恩(owing to Thomas Paine),但我倾向于认为,其中相当大一部分确实是(a good portion of it decidedly is)”(822)。
一个小册子作者的偶然职业生涯(The accidental career of a pamphleteer)
潘恩于 1774 年 11 月抵达费城(arrived in Philadelphia in November 1774),当时他 37 岁。他随身带着一封本杰明·富兰克林的介绍信(a letter of introduction from Benjamin Franklin),他几个月前曾在伦敦见过富兰克林。口袋里几乎没有钱(With practically no money in his pocket),富兰克林给他的推荐(his recommendation from Franklin)很容易就构成了他最有价值的财物(constituted his most valuable possession),而且后来证明它确实相当有价值(would prove to be quite valuable indeed)。在英格兰的各种职业上失败(failed at various careers in England)的潘恩,与十八世纪大多数其他前往殖民地的移民(immigrants to the colonies)并没有那么不同。在与第二任妻子离婚(divorce)之后,他陷入穷困潦倒(destitute)且失业(jobless)的境地——他的第一任妻子死于分娩(died in childbirth)——于是他正在寻求一个重新开始(seeking a fresh start)的机会。殖民地给了他一个重塑自己(reinvent himself)、把过去的失败抛在身后(put his past failures behind him)的机会。他的转变(transformation)是一个生动的例证(object lesson),说明跨大西洋的英美世界(the transatlantic Anglo-American world)中新的经济和社会秩序(new economic and social order)具有显著的流动性(remarkable fluidity)。它表明,十八世纪晚期英格兰与美国之间的相似性(similarities)仍然远大于差异(differences)。事实上,历史学家已经指出,到革命时期(by the time of the Revolution),美国社会和文化比以往任何时候都更接近英格兰(more closely resembled England than it had at any time previously)。4 虽然美国人无疑正在形成地方身份(developing local identities),但这些身份并不比英格兰内部的地区差异(regional variances)更加明显(no more marked than)。一个费城人与一个伦敦人之间的差异(differences between a Philadelphian and a Londoner),几乎肯定不大于一个纽卡斯尔人与一个南安普敦人之间的差异。简单说来(Put simply),认为在革命前夕(on the eve of the Revolution)美国人在某种意义上与他们的英国对应者(British counterparts)有本质不同(essentially different)的观念(notion),更多的是遮蔽(obscure)十八世纪晚期英美世界的文化,而不是澄清(clarify)它的范围和界限(parameters)。5从潘恩在英格兰生活的最初 37 年来看,很难想象他会成为一个重要的国际人物(major international figure)。他出生在塞特福德(Thetford),那是英国乡村(English countryside)中的一个小镇;潘恩的出身并不起眼(roots were inauspicious)。他的父亲是一个店主(shopkeeper),用鲸须(whalebone)制作紧身胸衣(corsets)。年轻的托马斯被训练去继承父亲的家族生意(trained to succeed his father in the family business),完成了他的学徒期(finished his apprenticeship),却发现紧身胸衣已经过时(corsets had gone out of fashion)。由于他无法以紧身胸衣制造者(staymaker)的身份谋生(make a living),他便在各种职业中寻找工作(sought employment in a variety of professions),这些职业最显著之处主要在于它们彼此之间的不协调(remarkable mostly for their incongruousness)。他尝试从事过(tried his hand as)私掠船员(privateer)、教师(schoolteacher)、巡回传教士(itinerant preacher)、消费税官(exciseman,也就是一种流动海关官员 a sort of roving customs officer),最后还做过杂货商(grocer,他继承了岳父的店铺 had inherited his father-in-law’s shop)。潘恩的各种职业把他带到英格兰各地(took him all over England),但他在伦敦度过的时间会尤其重要(especially significant)。在那里,他用自己当私掠船员时赚到的钱(the money he had earned as a privateer),去听著名巡回科学讲师(famous itinerant scientists)詹姆斯·弗格森(James Ferguson)和本杰明·马丁(Benjamin Martin)6 的讲座(attend lectures);后来他还会见到奥利弗·哥尔德史密斯(Oliver Goldsmith)和本杰明·富兰克林(Benjamin Franklin)等人。他同后两位人物的联系(His connections with these last two figures)给了他追求写作事业(pursue a career as a writer)的信心。在当时,英裔爱尔兰人哥尔德史密斯(the Anglo-Irish Goldsmith)是英国文坛(British letters)最杰出的人物之一(one of the preeminent figures),那是一个剧作家和诗人被奉为文化英雄(playwrights and poets were lionized as cultural heroes)的时代。当然,富兰克林是十八世纪最杰出的美国文人(the most prominent American man of letters)。我们只能想象,来自哥尔德史密斯和富兰克林这样两位名人(two luminaries)的赞扬和鼓励,会对潘恩作为作家的信心产生怎样的影响。
在担任消费税官(exciseman)期间,潘恩通过经常并且显然表现出色地参加(regular and apparently distinguished participation)海德斯特朗俱乐部(Headstrong Club)来发展他的写作和辩论能力(developed his writing and debating skills);这是苏塞克斯的一个辩论俱乐部(a debating club in Sussex)。这些俱乐部在十八世纪的英格兰和美国都很流行(very popular in England and America),并鼓励成员讨论时事(discuss current events),磨炼他们的修辞能力(hone their rhetorical skills)。富兰克林在费城也创办过这样一个俱乐部(had started such a club),他称之为朱托社(Junto)。在《自传》(The Autobiography)中,他描述了它的规则:
我起草的规则(The Rules I drew up)要求每个成员轮到自己时(every Member in his Turn),都要就道德、政治或自然哲学中的任何问题(one or more Queries on any Point of Morals, Politics or Natural Philosophy)提出一个或多个议题,供会社讨论(to be discuss’d by the Company);并且每三个月一次(once in three Months),要拿出并朗读一篇自己写的文章(produce & read an Essay of his own Writing),题目可以是他自己喜欢的任何主题(on any Subject he pleased)。我们的辩论(Our Debates)要在一位主席的指导之下进行(under the Direction of a President),并且要本着真诚探求真理的精神(in the sincere Spirit of Inquiry after Truth)来进行,而不要带着喜好争辩(without Fondness for Dispute)或求胜欲(or Desire of Victory);并且为了防止争论中的火气(to prevent Warmth),一切武断表达(all Expressions of Positiveness in Opinion)或直接反驳(direct Contradiction),过了一段时间之后,都被列为禁物并禁止使用(were after some time made contraband & prohibited),违者处以小额金钱罚款(under small pecuniary Penalties)。(65–66)
富兰克林的朱托社(Franklin’s Junto),他也把它描述为“一个促进共同提升的俱乐部(club for mutual improvement)”以及“当时本省存在的最好的哲学、道德与政治学校(the best school of philosophy, morals, & politics that then existed in the Province)”,持续聚会将近 40 年(continued to meet for almost 40 years),并且会促成费城一批重要公共项目(lead to a number of important public projects),其中包括这座城市第一家医院的建造(the construction of the first hospital in the city)(65, 66)。虽然海德斯特朗俱乐部(the Headstrong Club)未必有同样的规则来指导讨论(the same rules guiding discussion),但这个俱乐部的目的(the purpose of the club)是相同的(identical)。这些俱乐部鼓励对当前感兴趣的话题进行公共讨论(encouraged public discussion of current topics of interest),并且常常使其参与者积极卷入地方事务(becoming actively involved in local affairs)。
潘恩在海德斯特朗俱乐部中的经验和声望(experience and reputation in the Headstrong Club),使他自然而然成为一个合适人选(made him a natural candidate),去代表他的同僚官员们的利益(represent the interests of his fellow officers);这些人觉得他们的工作没有得到足够报酬(were not adequately compensated)。消费税官(Excisemen)不受欢迎(were unpopular),而且常常被当地人粗暴对待(often ill-treated by the locals);当地人把自己因被征税而产生的怨恨(resentment at being taxed),转移到那些负责向他们收钱的官员身上(redirected their resentment onto the officers charged with collecting the money from them)。微薄的工资(Meager wages)也使消费税官容易受到腐败诱惑的影响(made excisemen subject to the temptations of corruption)。1772 年,潘恩被请去写一本小册子(was asked to author a pamphlet),为他的消费税官同僚们主张更好的薪酬和改善后的工作条件(advocating better pay and improved working conditions)。潘恩欣然接受了这个机会(embraced the opportunity)。在《消费税官的案情》(“The Case of the Officers of Excise”)中,我们可以看到他作为一个有说服力的作者(persuasive author)正在发展的技巧的初现端倪(glimmers)。他后来会在《常识》(Common Sense)中使用的许多修辞策略(rhetorical strategies),已经出现在这篇较早的文本中(are present in this earlier text)。例如,潘恩常常使用格言式陈述(aphoristic statements),把一种朴素真理感(a sense of homespun truth)传达给他的主张(convey to his claims)。这一策略在这样的陈述中很明显(is evident in statements like):“有些情况是如此格外合情合理(so singularly reasonable),以至于人们越是考虑它们(the more they are considered),它们就获得越多分量(the more weight they obtain)”;以及“在事实已经足够的地方(Where facts are sufficient),论证就是无用的(arguments are useless)”(4, 7)。同样重要的是(Just as important),在《案情》(the “Case”)中,潘恩着手去代表(sets out to represent)一个处于困境且受压迫的普通人民(an embattled and oppressed common people)的观点。作为消费税官们的声音(As the voice of the excisemen),其中三千人签署请愿书支持他的小册子(three thousand of whom signed a petition in support of his pamphlet),潘恩是在代表一个正在形成的工人阶级(an emergent working class)的利益,而这些人正是他在后来的作品中会寻求代表其利益的人(the very people whose interests he would seek to represent in his later works)。虽然这本小册子没有达到它的目标(failed in its objectives),并且实质上导致潘恩被解职(essentially led to the dismissal of Paine from his job),但它也代表了他作为作家的新职业生涯的开端(represented the beginning of his new career as a writer)。这正是由于这次努力(It was owing to this effort),他才得以见到富兰克林(came to meet Franklin);而富兰克林反过来(who, in turn)会帮助他在费城获得写作工作(help him obtain work as a writer in Philadelphia)。
在费城,富兰克林的介绍信(letter of introduction)帮助潘恩找到一份工作(land a job),担任罗伯特·艾特肯正在创办的一份新杂志的编辑。当曾经出版过富兰克林一些作品的艾特肯(who had previously published some of Franklin’s works)提出创办他的《宾夕法尼亚杂志》(Pennsylvania Magazine)时,费城没有其他杂志正在出版。7 杂志是十八世纪一种新型的出版物形式(a novel form of publication),由伦敦印刷商爱德华·凯夫在 1730 年代发明。在十八世纪,杂志通常充当各种不同材料的汇编(served as compendiums of a variety of different materials)。在凯夫的《绅士杂志》(Gentlemen’s Magazine)出现之前,大不列颠的各种印刷商曾出版专门面向某一特定主题的期刊(periodicals dedicated to a specific subject),例如科学、诗歌或历史。凯夫引入了一种新的月刊形式(a new kind of monthly publication),并为此创造了 magazine 这个术语(coined the term magazine);这种刊物将包括涉及广泛主题的文章(articles on a wide range of subjects)。那则宣布《宾夕法尼亚杂志》(Pennsylvania Magazine)创刊并招揽订户(soliciting subscribers)的广告,反映了这份出版物对异质性的强调(emphasis on heterogeneity)。广告称,《宾夕法尼亚杂志》(Pennsylvania Magazine)将分为六个不同的部分(divided into six separate sections),并特别强调与美洲殖民地有关的问题(a special emphasis placed on issues of interest to the American colonies):美国文章、从英国杂志中选出的文章、一份附有“评论与摘录”(“remarks and extracts”)的新书清单、一个诗歌部分、新闻或“每月情报”(“Monthly Intelligence”),以及一份气象日记(meteorological diary)。这意味着,作为编辑,潘恩会接触、审阅并组织整理(encountering, reviewing, and organizing)广泛的材料。编辑杂志是海德斯特朗俱乐部或富兰克林的朱托社等辩论俱乐部活动的一种自然的印刷媒介对应形式(a natural print analogue)。杂志的异质性(heterogeneity)会渗入《常识》(Common Sense);在这本书中,潘恩经常使用来自科学、宗教、机械学、博物学、诗歌、指导手册以及无数其他写作形式的例子、类比和典故引用(examples, analogies, and allusions),而这些写作形式充斥着从凯夫的《绅士杂志》(Gentleman’s Magazine)到《宾夕法尼亚杂志》(The Pennsylvania Magazine)的各类杂志页面。
艾特肯的杂志也许最显著的方面(Perhaps the most notable aspect)在于,它会刊登美国原创文章和诗歌(print original American essays and poetry),而不只是重印(reprint)来自英国出版物的材料(material from British publications)。这使它在一个几乎所有其他在殖民地出版的杂志(virtually all other magazines published in the colonies)都由英国内容主导(were dominated by British content)的时刻显得独特(unique)。根据殖民地美国期刊文学(colonial American periodical literature)最重要的历史学家(the foremost historian)的说法,“很可能至少有四分之三的总内容(at least three-fourths of the total contents)……是从书籍、小册子、报纸和其他杂志中摘取的(were extracted from books, pamphlets, newspapers, and other magazines),既有英国的,也有美国的……选文中更大的一部分(the larger part of the selections)当然是英国的”(Mott, 39)。所以,艾特肯和潘恩正在进行一种新颖实验(undertaking a novel experiment),而这种实验之所以成为可能(had been made possible),是因为费城已经成长为一个重要的大都市中心(a major metropolitan center)。它拥有 30,000 人口,宗教和族裔上都很多元(religiously and ethnically diverse),已经成为殖民地的政治和商业首都(the political and mercantile capital of the colonies)。它也远远是殖民地最繁忙的港口(by far the busiest port in the colonies)。8 艾特肯是一位精明的印刷商(a canny printer),在费城已经拥有成功的职业生涯(had enjoyed a successful career),他押注(was betting)一座具有这种规模(of its size)以及经济和政治重要性(economic and political significance)的城市,可以在其他杂志早先失败之后支撑起一份杂志(could sustain a magazine)。对潘恩来说,这个机会使他能够非常迅速地了解(enabled him to learn very quickly)这座城市的关键经济、政治和文化价值及关切(the key economic, political, and cultural values and concerns of the city)。
虽然艾特肯和潘恩相处得并不特别好(didn’t get along particularly well),但这位印刷商显然认识到了他的编辑吸引读者的能力(recognized his editor’s ability to attract readers)。通过一些及时的文章(timely articles),这些文章刚好擦着争议边缘而没有真正变得有争议(just skirted being controversial),潘恩以前所未有的方式吸引了费城人的注意(attracted the attention of Philadelphians as no editor had before)。这本杂志的成功在很大程度上取决于(was largely contingent upon)它能否走好这条细线(walk this fine line):既抓住读者的注意力(capturing readers’ attention),又不激怒他们(irritating them)。能够负担得起订阅月刊(afford to subscribe to a monthly magazine)的人数相当有限(quite limited)。所以艾特肯和潘恩必须注意不要(had to be mindful not to)因为显得党派性太强或极端(by seeming partisan or extreme)而失去订户(lose subscribers)。从一开始,潘恩似乎就对此理解得很清楚(seemed to understand this quite well)。在成为杂志编辑仅仅一个月之后(Just a month after becoming editor of the magazine),潘恩就把自己对读者数量的影响(his impact on readership)告诉了富兰克林:“我刚开始协助他时,他的订户不超过六百人(not above six hundred subscribers);我们现在有超过一千五百人(upwards of fifteen hundred),而且还在每日增加(daily increasing)”(Paine II, 1131)。作为这份杂志的编辑(As its editor),潘恩不仅擅长自己撰写这类作品(was not only adept at writing such pieces himself),而且还能够识别(was able to identify)他想从投稿者那里刊登的那类材料(the kind of materials he wanted to print from his contributors)——文章、诗歌、讽刺作品、时事性条目(articles, poems, satirical pieces, topical items)。因此,潘恩为他那种朴素的政治哲学风格(his style of homespun political philosophy)找到了声音和受众(found a voice and an audience)。重要的是,要把这一点理解为一种辩证过程(recognize this as a dialectical process)。受众和作者进入了一场对话(engaged in a dialogue),因为双方都在塑造对方(as each molded the other):潘恩的写作会受到他希望吸引的那类读者的塑造(would be shaped by the kinds of readers he hoped to attract),但就在这个过程中(in that very process),他也会教育一个读者群(educate a readership),并重塑他们的观点、态度和期待(reshape their views, attitudes, and expectations)。
潘恩和艾特肯维持他们的合作关系(maintained their partnership)大约八个月(roughly eight months),随后他们决定分道扬镳(decided to part ways)。在离开《宾夕法尼亚杂志》(The Pennsylvania Magazine)后几乎立刻(Almost immediately upon leaving),潘恩就在拉什、富兰克林以及其他人的推动下(at the behest of Rush, Franklin and others),开始着手写作《常识》(Common Sense)这个项目。正如我一直在暗示的那样(As I have been suggesting),潘恩担任《宾夕法尼亚杂志》(The Pennsylvania Magazine)编辑的这段时期(Paine’s spell as editor),是一段关键的学徒训练(the crucial apprenticeship),它使他能够写出《常识》(enabled him to write Common Sense)。这份杂志让他能够便利地接触(granted him ready access to)来自各殖民地以及海外的所有最新消息(all the latest news from around the colonies and abroad)。他也会进入费城重要的政治和知识圈子(gain entry to vital Philadelphia political and intellectual circles),其中包括大卫·里滕豪斯(David Rittenhouse)、本杰明·拉什(Benjamin Rush)、弗朗西斯·霍普金森(Francis Hopkinson)、威廉·史密斯(William Smith),当然还有本杰明·富兰克林(Benjamin Franklin)等重要人物。这些人物会推动潘恩的职业生涯(promote Paine’s career),并使他有可能成为一名全职政治作家(make it possible for him to become a full-time political writer),而在当时,职业作家这一职业道路的观念本身仍处在非常早期的阶段(the very idea of a career as a professional writer was still in its very early phases)。9 但最重要的是(But most importantly),潘恩会定期为这份杂志投稿(contribute regularly to the magazine),发表涉及广泛主题的文章(publishing articles on a wide range of subjects),包括婚姻、博物学和商业(including marriage, natural history, and commerce)。通过这些写作(Through these writings),潘恩会发展出他独特的风格(develop his particular style),以及那些他后来会在《常识》(Common Sense)中极其有效地运用的修辞策略(the rhetorical strategies that he would employ so effectively)。
写作和编辑这份杂志(Writing and editing the magazine)要求潘恩学会通过微妙的类比(subtle analogy)、暗示(innuendo)和讽喻(allegory),间接地处理政治关切(address political concerns indirectly)。艾特肯不允许潘恩发表明确政治性的文章(explicitly political essays),因为在潜在读者群有限(limited potential readership)的情况下,如果这份杂志看起来是在公开支持某一特定立场(espousing a particular position),他们就承受不起失去那些可能被冒犯的读者(readers who might be offended)的代价。潘恩使用讽喻(use of allegory)的最有趣例子之一,可以在这份杂志 1775 年 4 月号中看到;潘恩为这一期投稿了一则题为《丘比特与许门》(“Cupid and Hymen”)的寓言(fable)。潘恩此前已经在这份杂志的若干期中发表过许多关于婚姻(marriage)的固定专栏(regular columns)——这是他最喜欢的话题之一(one of his favorite topics)——但没有哪一篇像这则寓言这样明显带有政治意味(so obviously political)。在十八世纪,寓言是政治作家常用的一种流行文类(a popular genre for political writers),最著名的例子是曼德维尔的《蜜蜂的寓言》(Mandeville’s Fable of the Bees [1714])。伊索(Aesop)是十八世纪最被广泛阅读的作者之一(one of the most widely read authors)。在当时,寓言并不被认为是儿童文学(children’s literature);相反,一直到十九世纪相当晚的时候(until well into the nineteenth century),它们都是成年读者的常读基本读物(a staple of adult readers)。艾特肯非常清楚这种文类具有广泛吸引力(the genre’s broad appeal),因此会在费城出版好几卷《伊索寓言》(Aesop’s Fables)。
在潘恩这则寓言中,他以“伊索”(“Esop”)这个笔名(pseudonym)写作;婚姻之神许门(Hymen, the god of marriage)试图把贫穷的鲁拉琳达(the poor Ruralinda)嫁给一位富有的领主(a rich lord),而这位领主已经付钱给她母亲,作为取得鲁拉琳达之手(in exchange for Ruralinda’s hand)的交换。然而,鲁拉琳达爱着另一个男人(loves another man),并拒绝遵从她母亲的愿望(refuses to comply with her mother’s wishes)。丘比特(Cupid)作为爱情之神(the god of love),管辖着许门(superintends over Hymen);他阻止了这场结合(prevents the union),并把鲁拉琳达从这场阴谋(conspiracy)中解救出来(rescues Ruralinda)。在这个过程中,他宣示了自己对许门的权威(asserts his authority over Hymen);他声称,未经他的批准(without his approval),许门无权主持一场婚姻(has no right to conduct a marriage):
许门,你要知道(Know Hymen),他说,我是你的主人(I am your master)。仁慈的朱庇特(Indulgent Jove)把你交给我,是作为一个书记员(as a clerk),不是作为一个对手(not as a rival),更不是作为一个上级(much less a superior)。促成结合(to form the union)是我的职责范围(my province),而见证它(to witness it)是你的职责。但是近来(of late),你背叛地擅自自立门户(treacherously assumed to set up for yourself)。不错,你可以像锁住罪犯一样把夫妻锁在一起(chain couples together like criminals),但你不能像恋人那样使他们结合(yoke them like lovers)……说到底(At best),你不过是一个世俗且暂时的神(a temporal and temporary god),朱庇特任命你,不是为了赐予幸福(not to bestow happiness),而是为了保障幸福(to secure happiness),并抑制人类的不忠(restrain the infidelity of mankind)。(159–160)
在这则寓言中,许门不仅越过了自己的权威范围(overstepped his authority),而且背叛了丘比特(betrayed Cupid),并且与财富之神普卢图斯(Platus, the god of riches)结盟(allied himself with)。因此,潘恩设置了一场爱与金钱之间的较量(a contest between love and money),把它们作为婚姻结合的正当基础(the proper basis for the marital union)。起初,这则寓言的关键戏剧冲突(the crucial drama of the fable)似乎会围绕许门的“对独立的僭越主张”(“pretensions to independence”)展开:从属者许门(the subordinate Hymen)起来反抗他的统治者丘比特(rises up against his ruler, Cupid)。然而,这则寓言显示许门的反叛(Hymen’s revolt)是建立在对婚姻的腐化/扭曲(based upon a corruption of marriage)之上的。于是,潘恩这则寓言的焦点(The focal point of Paine’s fable)变成了它对婚姻性质的说明(its account of the nature of marriage),尤其是(in particular)在这样一种关系的基础中,把商业考量置于情感考量之下(the subordination of commercial to sentimental considerations)。10 许门被误导的反叛(Hymen’s misguided revolt)关键在于(hinges on)他既误解了自己的角色(a misunderstanding of his role),也误解了婚姻的性质(the nature of marriage)。这则寓言的核心观点(The central point of the fable)正是来自(derives precisely from)丘比特对许门宣示自己的权威(Cupid’s assertion of his authority over Hymen),因为潘恩通过丘比特(through Cupid)宣示了爱在婚姻结合中的首要地位(the primacy of love in the union of marriage)。没有丘比特的批准(Without Cupid’s approval),这种结合只能是暂时的(can only be temporary),因为仅凭许门不能创造一种永久纽带(create a permanent bond),尤其是在鲁拉琳达不同意这桩婚姻(will not consent to the marriage)的情况下。具有讽刺意味的是(Ironically),潘恩宣示了一种等级关系的正当性(asserts the legitimacy of one hierarchical relationship),也就是丘比特对许门的统治(Cupid’s rule over Hymen),以便削弱另一种等级关系(in order to undermine another one),也就是大不列颠对美洲殖民地的统治(Great Britain’s rule over the American colonies)。这则寓言对于大不列颠与其北美殖民地之间关系的含义(The fable’s implications for the relationship between Great Britain and its colonies in North America)已经足够清楚(are clear enough):这种纽带应当建立在双方同意与情感(mutual consent and affection)之上,而不是建立在商业利益(commercial interests)之上。此外(Moreover),这则寓言暗示(implies),这种关系中包含一种选择(there is a choice involved in the relationship)。亲子隐喻(The parent-child metaphor)通常被用来把英格兰与其殖民地之间的关系自然化(naturalize the relationship),并强化母国对其子女的权威主张(reinforce the mother-country’s claims to authority over her children)。《丘比特与许门》(“Cupid and Hymen”)中的婚姻隐喻(The marriage metaphor)为英格兰与美洲之间的关系提供了一种替代模式(offers an alternative model),在这种模式中,结合的条件(the terms of the union)是取决于条件的、契约性的(contingent and contractual)。后来,在《常识》(Common Sense)中,潘恩会重新回到亲子隐喻(return to the parent-child metaphor),这一次他会运用正在兴起的儿童发展理论(employing emerging theories of childhood development),试图颠覆传统亲子关系中的固定等级秩序(subvert the fixed hierarchy of the traditional parent-child relationship)。因此,潘恩的寓言虽然没有直接进行政治论证(without directly engaging in political argument),却对殖民地当前局势(the current state of affairs in the colonies)作出了重要而细微的观察(important and subtle observations)。
在围绕英国征税的正当性(the legitimacy of British taxation)以及殖民地在英帝国中的角色(the role of the colonies in the British empire)所发生的各种争议之后(In the wake of the various controversies),殖民地与母国关系的基础(the foundation of the colonies’ relationship to the mother country)这个问题,成了被广泛讨论的话题(a topic of much discussion)。经济隐喻和亲情/子女义务隐喻(Economic and filial metaphors)常被用来描述把旧世界与新世界连接起来的纽带(the ties binding the old world to the new),但很少有作品如此生动地把每一类主张彼此对立起来(rarely were the claims of each set against one another so vividly)。在潘恩的寓言中(In Paine’s fable),情感目标和经济目标(sentimental and economic goals)彼此必然对立(are necessarily antithetical to one another),并且无法调和(cannot be reconciled)。王权(The Crown)愿意展示其军事力量(willingness to flex its military muscle),以强制实现它的经济目标(to enforce its economic goals),这也已经使亲情话语(the rhetoric of filial affection)复杂化(complicated),甚至可以说使其失效(if not invalidated)。1775 年 4 月(April 1775),也就是《宾夕法尼亚杂志》(Pennsylvania Magazine)这一期出现的时候(when this edition appeared),也是列克星敦和康科德事件发生的月份(the month of Lexington and Concord)。所以,潘恩没有明确指出殖民地与英格兰之间的关系(without explicitly identifying the relationship between the colonies and England),也没有提及近期那些王权动用军事力量来强制执行其法律主张的事件(referring to recent events during which the Crown had employed its military might to enforce its legal claims),却设法至少在哲学层面上处理了(manages to address, at least philosophically)当时占据大多数殖民地居民注意力的危机(the crisis occupying the attention of most colonials at the time)。
通过寓言、随笔、新闻文章、建议专栏、诗歌,甚至歌曲(Through fables, essays, new articles, advice columns, poems, and even songs),潘恩找到了评论国家事务(comment upon the affairs of state)的方式,而不必明确表明立场(without having to stake out an explicit position)。相反(Instead),他创造出一种语境(creates a context),使他的读者很难得出任何其他结论(makes it difficult for his readers to reach any other conclusion)。换句话说(In other words),他给人的印象是,他只是在告知或教育(merely informing or educating),而不是在说服(rather than persuading)。他不是为读者把答案直接讲明(Rather than spell out the answers for readers),从而显得是在训导他们(thereby appear to lecture them)——这也会使他显得占据一个更高的位置(set him up as occupying a superior position),这两种印象都是他出于多种原因想要避免的(both were impressions he wanted to avoid for a variety of reasons)——而是学会了构造论证(learned to construct arguments),要求读者运用逻辑(call for the reader to apply logic),并得出他或她自己的结论(reach his or her own conclusions)。他掌握了这样一种艺术(mastered the art):既为普通人说话,又以普通人的身份说话(speaking both for and as a common person),也就是为他曾为这份杂志想象出的那类读者说话(the kind of reader he had imagined for the magazine)。因此(Consequently),他会用一种语调来写作(write in a tone),这种语调显示出的不是受过高度教育的修辞和哲学上的复杂性(not highly educated rhetorical and philosophical sophistication),而是一种更朴素(more homespun)、更接地气(down to earth)、更日常的逻辑(everyday logic)——一种建立在普通人的经验、信念和价值之上的逻辑(a logic grounded in the experiences, beliefs, and values of common people)。这种风格不仅体现在他的格言式语言中(is not only evident in his aphoristic language),也体现在他使用来自日常生活的隐喻、类比和修辞套路(his use of metaphors, analogies, and tropes from everyday life)来阐明政治观点(to illustrate political points)之中。因此(Thus),从海德斯特朗俱乐部的参与者(participant in the Headstrong Club),到《宾夕法尼亚杂志》(Pennsylvania Magazine)的编辑,再到《常识》(Common Sense)的作者,这一跨越(the leap)也许看起来不太可能(improbable)而且非同寻常(remarkable),但十八世纪晚期印刷世界的变化(the changes in the world of print in the late eighteenth century),使这一点远不像它最初看起来那样牵强(made this much less of a stretch than at first it may appear to have been)。
《常识》的说服性修辞(The Persuasive Rhetoric of Common Sense)
如果潘恩的职业轨迹(career trajectory)显示出十八世纪晚期社会、政治和知识景观(social, political, and intellectual landscape)中的重要转变(important shifts),那么他适应费城政治文化(adjusted to the political culture of Philadelphia)的轻松程度(the ease with which)似乎同样重要(seems equally significant)。学者和普通观察者(Scholars and casual observers alike)都倾向于强调(have tended to emphasize)殖民地的社会与文化(the society and culture of the colonies)同帝国中心(the imperial center)之间已经形成的差异(the differences that had developed)。这些差异后来会成为革命之后最初几十年里民族主义作者(nationalist authors)的一个核心主题(a central theme),当时这个新国家(the new nation)正在努力在世界上开辟出自己的身份(struggling to carve out its own identity in the world)。例如,在他广受欢迎的戏剧《对照》(The Contrast)中,罗亚尔·泰勒(Royall Tyler)把这些差异戏剧化呈现(dramatizes these differences),并歌颂殖民地居民的健全朴素(celebrates the wholesome simplicity of the colonials),以此对照欧洲人腐化了的精致复杂(over against the corrupted sophistication of the Europeans)。具有讽刺意味的是(Ironically),泰勒这样的作家对于这些差异的焦虑(the anxiety of writers such as Tyler over these differences),反而让人注意到这样一种程度(calls attention to the degree):这种所谓自然的民族性格(this allegedly natural national character)在当时其实正在被建构和发明(was being constructed and invented)。因此,泰勒关于美国身份的焦虑(Tyler’s anxiety about American identity),正是一段巨大不确定时期(a period of great uncertainty)的症状(symptomatic of):人们并不清楚美国文化究竟将如何被定义(how exactly American culture would be defined)。泰勒绝不是唯一回应这种关切的作家(was hardly the only writer to respond to this concern):菲利普·弗雷诺(Philip Freneau)、默西·奥蒂斯·沃伦(Mercy Otis Warren)、赫克托·圣约翰·德·克雷夫科尔(Hector St. John de Crevecoeur),以及许多其他早期美国作家(a host of other early American writers),都在诗歌、戏剧、小说、报纸文章和小册子中努力处理(grappled with)这个问题。从这个角度来看(In this light),潘恩向新世界的轻松过渡(his easy transition to the new world),与其说是表明潘恩本人有什么非凡技能(serving as an indication of any extraordinary skill on Paine’s part),不如说可以归因于(can be attributed to)殖民地与母国之间文化和政治价值(the cultural and political values of the colonies and the mother country)的深层相似性(underlying similarity)。
我们也可以在几部重要政治小册子中看到这些价值被运用(see those values deployed);这些小册子由殖民地主要人物(leading colonists)在《常识》(Common Sense)出版前十年(the decade prior to the publication of Common Sense)发表,用来谴责(to decry)他们所看到的英国政府方面一种新的、更具威权性的语调和做法(a new more authoritarian tone and approach)。我在附录 A(Appendix A)中收入了这种写作的三个重要例子(three important examples):约翰·亚当斯的《论教会法和封建法》(“A Dissertation on the Canon and Feudal Law”)(1765)、约翰·狄金森的《宾夕法尼亚农夫来信》(Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania)(1767),以及托马斯·杰斐逊的《英属美洲权利概要》(A Summary View of the Rights of British America)(1774)。这些文本分别最初发表于波士顿、费城和弗吉尼亚(originally published in Boston, Philadelphia, and Virginia, respectively),但传播到整个殖民地(disseminated throughout the colonies),都是为了回应他们所感知到的英国一方的专制行动(perceived tyrannical action on the part of the British)。亚当斯、狄金森和杰斐逊都把美洲殖民者权利的起源(the origin of the American colonists’ rights)定位在英国政治理论中(locate ... in British political theory)。三人都对政府政策进行法律分析(engage in legal analyses of the policies of the government),并把他们要求摆脱国王或议会暴政(relief from the tyranny of the King or the Parliament)的主张,建立在代表权、自由和自由权利(representation, freedom, and liberty)这些观念之上;而这些观念正处在英国宪政主义的核心(lay at the heart of British constitutionalism)。亚当斯或狄金森在写他们的小册子时,同大不列颠切断联系(severing ties with Britain)这个想法对他们来说是不可想象的(inconceivable);而杰斐逊在 1774 年仍然不愿谈论同英格兰切断联系(severing ties with England)。相反(Instead),他们都把自己看作英国裔美洲人(British Americans)——用杰斐逊在《英属美洲权利概要》(A Summary View)中的术语来说——他们为自己是英帝国成员(membership in the British Empire)而自豪,并希望继续享受开明的英国政府制度(the enlightened British system of government)所带来的好处(benefits)。
就在《独立宣言》(Declaration of Independence)发表前一年(Just a year prior to the Declaration of Independence),伦敦和费城之间的文化和政治相似性(cultural and political similarities)是这样的:那些将被用来为革命赋予正当性(be employed to authorize the Revolution)的基本术语(basic terms)——自由(freedom)、自由权利(liberty)和个人权利(individual rights)——在大西洋两岸(on both sides of the Atlantic)都是共享的(shared)。这指向潘恩在《常识》(Common Sense)中面对的一个关键挑战(one of the key challenges):如果美国殖民者本质上仍然是英国人(essentially still Britons),那么潘恩就必须找到一种方式,帮助他们把自己重新想象为(reimagine themselves as)与他们的英国对应者(English counterparts)在类别上不同(categorically different)的人。
我们看到潘恩处理建构一种独特的美国文化和政治身份(constructing a distinct American cultural and political identity)这一问题的一个地方,是反复出现的“成年”修辞套路(the recurring trope of coming of age)。这个把国家发展类比为个人成长(analogizing national development to personal growth)的隐喻(metaphor)贯穿全文出现(appears throughout the text),但它在《常识》(Common Sense)最后两节中成为中心母题(central motif)。正如他在“关于美国事务当前状态的思考”(“Thoughts on the Present State of American Affairs”)开头所说的那样,潘恩打算“依据自然和常识的原则(on the principles of nature and common sense),考察那种联系和依赖[对大不列颠](To examine that connexion and dependance [on Great Britain]),以看看如果分离(if separated),我们有什么可以信赖(what we have to trust to),以及如果继续依赖(if dependant),我们又应期待什么(what we are to expect)”(62–63)。在这个句子中(而它其实并不真是一个句子)(which is not really a sentence),潘恩列出了这本小册子这一节的目标(lays out the goal of this section)。就在下一段(In the very next paragraph),他援引了发展叙事(invokes the developmental narrative):
我曾听到有些人断言(I have heard it asserted by some),由于美洲在它从前同大不列颠的联系之下繁荣起来(as America hath flourished under her former connexion with Great-Britain),同样的联系对于它未来的幸福也是必要的(the same connexion is necessary towards her future happiness),并且将永远产生同样的效果(will always have the same effect)。没有什么能比这种论证更谬误(Nothing can be more fallacious than this kind of argument)。我们同样可以断言(We may as well assert),因为一个孩子靠牛奶长得很好(because a child has thrived upon milk),他就永远不该吃肉(it is never to have meat);或者说,我们生命中的前二十年(the first twenty years of our lives)应当成为接下来二十年的先例(become a precedent for the next twenty)(63)。
潘恩于是使用这种发展叙事(developmental narrative)来暗示:殖民地已经达到青年成年期(have reached young adulthood),不再需要母国(the mother country)的父母式指导(parental guidance)、保护(protection)或管教(discipline)。潘恩所谓“这类论证”(“arguments of this kind”),指的是支持同大不列颠和解的论证(the argument for reconciliation with Britain)中的一种结构性特征(a structural quality),它依赖一种历史模式(relies upon a model of history),在这种模式中,关系被本质化为某种特定秩序(relationships are essentialized into a particular order),并且永远不得改变(never to be changed)。潘恩不仅在这个具体情形中支持改变(in favor of change in this particular case),而且正如引言清楚表明的那样(as the introduction clearly suggests),他认为改变是世界自然秩序的一部分(part of the natural order of the world)。因此(Thus),他使独立看起来不像是一种大胆的政治观念(less a daring political idea),而更像是一种自然的发展(more like a natural development)。
这本小册子的最后一节(The last section of the pamphlet)一开始就唤起了一种与英格兰分离不可避免的感觉(invoking a sense of the inevitability of a separation from England):“我从未遇到过一个人(I have never met with a man),无论是在英格兰还是在美洲(either in England or America),没有承认他自己的看法(who hath not confessed his opinion),即这两个国家之间的分离(a separation between the countries)迟早总会发生(would take place one time or another)”(76–77)。他把这一主张设定为一种借口或前提(sets this claim up as the pretext),以解释为什么眼下正是这种分离特别有利的时刻(a particularly propitious moment for such a separation)。他的大多数论证(Most of his arguments)再一次建立在个人发展(personal development)或亲子关系(parent-child relationships)的观念之上(grounded in notions of)。
潘恩的说法是真是假(Whether or not Paine’s claim is true)并不是重点(is beside the point)。值得注意的是(What is remarkable is),这一路论证(this line of argumentation)在多大程度上建立起了一种叙事结构(establishes a narrative structure),使美国人能够把自己的行动理解为成长这一正常过程的一部分(understand their actions as part of the normal process of growing up)。它把对大不列颠的依赖(the dependence on Great Britain)框定为一种强有力但暂时的纽带(a strong but temporary tie),从而使他的读者能够想象自己既是英国人(British),同时又不是英国人(not British)。
在修辞上和政治上(Rhetorically and politically),这一点尤其困难(especially difficult),因为当时用来主张美洲独立权利和政治自由(America’s rights to independence and political liberty)的现成术语(the available terms)都在极大程度上受惠于英国政治哲学(heavily indebted to English political philosophy)。例如,正是同意(consent)、财产(property)和个人权利(individual rights)这些观念(the very notions),构成了反抗英国统治的修辞(inform the rhetoric of the resistance to British rule):这种修辞出现在《印花税法》危机(the Stamp Act Crisis)以及围绕税收的一系列争议(the series of controversies over taxation)之中;这些争议在通向革命的十年半时间里(for the decade and a half leading up to the Revolution)主导了英美关系(dominate British-American relations),并且也会构成《独立宣言》中所主张的政治权利的核心(form the core of the political rights claimed in the Declaration of Independence)。这些观念在很大程度上取自英国政治哲学或法律评注(largely taken from British political philosophy or legal commentary)。约翰·洛克(John Locke)、《大宪章》(Magna Carta)、威廉·布莱克斯通(William Blackstone)和亚当·弗格森(Adam Ferguson)——仅举几个最相关的来源(to name just a few of the most relevant sources)——提供了基础(provided the foundation),美国政治领袖正是在这一基础之上建立起他们支持独立的论证(built their case for independence)。11
潘恩在《常识》(Common Sense)中采用的关键策略之一(One of the key strategies employed by Paine),是化解(defuse)他所提出的那些观念(the ideas he presents)同传统英国思想(traditional British thought)之间的认同关系(the identification):也就是说,使他的论证看起来像普遍真理(universal truths)。他通过修辞手段(rhetorical means)做到这一点;在他确实提供支撑性例子(supporting examples)的那些场合,他也通过把自己的论证建立在科学、自然或《圣经》(science, nature, or the Bible)之上来做到这一点——这些来源不会被仅仅等同于英国民族传统(identified solely with British national traditions)。也就是说(That is),他的论证并不是显得根植于某个具体的历史地点和时间(a specific historical place and time)——尽管事实上它们正是如此——而是他制造出这样一种印象(creates the impression):他正在提出的论证是不证自明的(self-evident)、自然的(natural),并且因此是常识(common sense)。他在《常识》(Common Sense)的“引言”(“Introduction”)中明确提出了这一主张(makes this claim explicitly):
美洲的事业(The cause of America)在很大程度上就是全人类的事业(the cause of all mankind)。许多情形已经出现、并且还将出现(Many circumstances hath, and will arise),它们并不是地方性的(not local),而是普遍性的(universal);通过这些情形,一切热爱人类者(all Lovers of Mankind)的原则都会受到影响(the principles ... are affected),而在这些情形的结局中(in the Event of which),他们的情感也利害相关(their Affections are interested)。用火与剑使一个国家荒芜(The laying a Country desolate with Fire and Sword),向全人类的自然权利宣战(declaring War against the natural rights of all Mankind),并把这些权利的捍卫者从地球表面根除(extirpating the Defenders thereof from the Face of the Earth),乃是每一个被自然赋予感受能力的人(every Man to whom Nature hath given the Power of feeling)都应关切的事情(is the Concern)(45)。
在这个极其丰富的早期姿态(wonderfully rich early gesture)中,我们发现了一个重要张力(an important tension)的第一个例子(the first instance);这种张力将在全文中反复出现(will recur throughout the text)。这一段一开头就断言了这一时刻的非特定性(non-specificity)和非历史性特征(ahistorical character)。例如,想一想,如果有人声称美洲殖民地与英国王室之间争执的结果(the outcome of the quarrel between the American colonies and the English Crown),同十八世纪晚期的东南亚人(South East Asians)有什么相关性(bore any relevance),这会显得多么荒谬(preposterous)。然而与此同时(At the same time, however),这段引文中的宽泛概括(the broad generalization of the quotation),却是通过诉诸同情(an appeal to sympathy)——被表述为“感受能力”(“power of feeling”)——以及自然权利(natural rights)而得以成立的(is enabled by);而这些观念实际上相当具体地属于十八世纪晚期的英格兰和美洲(fairly specific to late eighteenth-century England and America)。12 因此(Thus),即便他试图剥离(attempts to divest)自己关于独立的号召(his call for independence)同英格兰正式权利传统(formal rights traditions in England)之间的联系(a connection),他仍不免退回到(can’t help but fall back into)其他关于个人与社会关系的英国概念(other British concepts of the individual and social relations)之中。
把美洲目标(American goals)同世界命运(the fate of the world)混为一体(The conflation of),不仅起到削弱(works to diminish)殖民地与母国(the mother country)之间任何相似性(any resemblance)的作用,而且还起到激励美国人(works to inspire Americans)把自己的处境看作具有深远历史重要性(one of profound historical import)的作用。他与其说是在试图暗示(not so much trying to suggest)其他国家或人民应当关心美国事务(take an interest in American affairs)——虽然他在别处确实这样说过(although he does say this elsewhere)——不如说是在试图让他的读者深信(trying to impress upon his readers a belief):这些事件如此重大(so momentous),以至于它们需要仔细关注(require careful attention),而且更重要的是,需要行动(action)。这就是为什么这一段是以这样一种格言式方式(aphoristic manner)构造出来的(is constructed)。它起到使他的主张显得不证自明(make his claims seem self-evident)的作用。这个主张以一个简单的陈述句(a simple declarative sentence)呈现出来(is presented),因此它看起来像一个事实(appears as a fact),而不是一个论证(rather than an argument)。美洲的事业(the cause of America)真的就是全人类的事业(the cause of all mankind)吗?美洲的事业究竟是什么(What exactly is the cause of America)?它在什么意义上(In what sense)是全人类的事业?换句话说(In other words),这个表面上直截了当的宣言(this apparently straightforward declaration),掩盖了一系列复杂得多的论证(conceals a series of much more complicated arguments)。就其逻辑而言(In terms of its logic),他已经把这个论证变成了这一段的前提(made the argument the premise of this passage)。通过把那些论证视为理所当然(taking those arguments for granted),假定它们为真(assuming their truthfulness),潘恩不仅赋予这一主张事实的外观(endows the claim with the appearance of fact),而且还避免了不得不处理(avoids having to address)一些有关大不列颠与其北美殖民地之间关系当前状态(the current state of affairs in the relationship between Great Britain and its North American colonies)的棘手问题(challenging questions)。例如,当时大多数美国人(Most Americans at the time)把这场冲突看作英格兰与其殖民地之间的地方事务(a local affair),而不是会改变历史进程(change the course of history)的划时代事件(an epochal event)。普通殖民者(The average colonist)更关心英国政策的经济后果(the economic repercussions of British policy),而不是这些事件在哲学和历史上的深远影响(the philosophical and historical ramifications)。换句话说,他们并不把自己看作“人类”(“mankind”)的代表(representatives),而是看作受到委屈的臣民(aggrieved subjects),需要从王权的不公正政策(the unjust policies of the Crown)中获得救济(relief)。我们也不应忘记(We should also not forget),有相当数量的殖民者(a significant number of colonists)反对同大不列颠分离(opposed separation from Great Britain)。对于效忠派(the Loyalists)和其他怀疑者(other skeptics)来说,潘恩的论证只不过是机会主义的自我推销者(opportunistic self-promoters)所提供的歪曲说法(distortions)的延伸(an extension)。
《常识》(Common Sense)充满了(is replete with)这种修辞和论证上的障眼法(rhetorical and argumentative sleight of hand)的例子;这种手法在“引言”(“Introduction”)中已经被使用(employed)。事实上(In fact),我想指出(I want to suggest),这本小册子的有效性(the pamphlet is effective)很大程度上归功于(largely due to)潘恩运用这些微妙修辞策略(these subtle rhetorical maneuvers)的技巧(the skill with which Paine is able to employ)。学者们传统上已经指出(have traditionally pointed out)潘恩作为作家的技巧(Paine’s skill as a writer),但直到相当近的时候(until quite recently),几乎没有多少学术关注(very little scholarly attention)被专门用于分析他的散文风格(had been dedicated to the analysis of his prose style)。例如,一位历史学家曾指出(One historian, for example, has suggested that):“使潘恩独特的地方(What made Paine unique)在于,他锻造了一种新的政治语言(forged a new political language)。他并不只是改变了词语的意义(did not simply change the meanings of words),而是创造了一种文学风格(created a literary style),旨在把他的信息传达给尽可能广泛的受众(designed to bring his message to the widest possible audience)。他的修辞清晰(His rhetoric was clear)、简单(simple)而直截了当(straightforward);他的论证根植于大众读者的共同经验(rooted in the common experiences of a mass readership)”(Foner xvi)。然而,正如我们已经看到的(As we have seen),潘恩的修辞并不总是清晰而简单(not always clear and simple);更准确地说(more accurate to say),他的散文几乎总是制造出清晰与简单的印象(creates the impression of clarity and simplicity),即便他的思想实际上根植于相当复杂而冗长的论证(rooted in fairly complex, lengthy arguments)。另一方面(On the other hand),必须认识到(it is important to recognize),潘恩只是用清晰且易懂的术语来呈现他的论证(renders his arguments in clear and accessible terms),并不意味着这些论证本身就是简单的或不精细的(simple or unsophisticated)。
潘恩赋予其文本一种简明感(endows his texts with an air of simplicity)的方式之一,是反复使用取自普通大众(the general public)——如埃里克·方纳所说(as Eric Foner puts it),取自“共同经验”(“the common experiences”)——的例子或类比(examples or analogies)。因此(Consequently),潘恩在《常识》(Common Sense)中经常使用宗教和技术性的隐喻或类比(religious and technological metaphors or analogies)。无论他是在援引《圣经》事件(Biblical incidents),以证明自己关于世袭君主制不道德(the immorality of a hereditary monarchy)的主张,还是把趋向社会的冲动(the impulse towards society)等同于引力(the force of gravity),潘恩所使用的例子都不要求他的读者具备很高的教育程度(a high degree of education)。仅以这两个例子来说明(Just to take these two references as illustrative),在十八世纪,《圣经》(the Bible)会是英格兰和殖民地中被阅读得最广泛、也最深入的文本(the most widely and intensively read text)。以色列人想要一位王的故事(The story of the Israelites’ desire for a King),构成了潘恩攻击君主制(Paine’s attack on monarchy)的关键历史依据(the key historical basis),在当时被广泛阅读(widely read),也经常被援引(frequently referred to)。潘恩的读者未必熟悉他围绕这些经文提出的那类主张(the kind of claims he makes about these passages),但文本本身会很容易被他们认出(readily recognized)。牛顿的引力理论(Newton’s theory of gravity),以及潘恩在《常识》(Common Sense)中使用的许多其他机械性和/或科学性的隐喻(mechanical and/or scientific metaphors),情况也是如此。事实上(In fact),这些隐喻不仅使普通读者能够理解政治理论(rendered political theory accessible to common readers),还在总体上为政治理论/政治哲学祛魅(demystified political theory/philosophy in general)。
这种祛魅(This demystification)对潘恩和他的读者来说是关键一步(a crucial step),因为在十八世纪的大部分时间里(for much of the eighteenth century),政治被理解为贵族阶层的专属领域(the exclusive province of the aristocracy)。正如新古典主义塑造了艺术(Just as Neoclassicism shaped the arts),十八世纪的英美政治理论(Anglo-American political theory)也主要建立在取自希腊和罗马的政府理论之上(based largely on theories of government taken from Greece and Rome)。古典共和主义政治思想(classic Republican political thought)中的一个基础观念(one of the foundational notions),是无私或超脱私利(disinterestedness)的观念。好的统治者必须是一个超脱私利的人(The good ruler must be a disinterested one):他不能被个人考量压住或拖累(must not be weighed down by personal considerations)。因此,只有贵族阶层被视为合适的统治者(Consequently, only the aristocracy were seen as suitable rulers),因为他们不受支配普通人生活的日常经济忧虑的束缚(because they were free of the day-to-day economic concerns that dominated the lives of ordinary folk)。与其直接攻击作为一种思维方式的古典共和主义(Rather than directly attack classical Republicanism as a mode of thinking),潘恩试图通过使政治和政治行动变得可由普通读者接触和参与(by making politics and political action available to them),来使普通读者获得政治参与资格(seeks to enfranchise common readers)。实现这一目的最有效的方式(The most effective way to accomplish this end),就是以普通读者能够很容易识别的形式(in forms that are readily identifiable to common readers),呈现政治哲学的问题和难题(present the issues and problems of political philosophy)。因此(Hence),《圣经》叙事(biblical narratives)和科学原则(scientific principles),尤其是那些正以机械学形式被广泛传播的原则(especially those being widely disseminated in the form of mechanics),对于一个试图把曾经被排除在外的普通公众(a once-excluded general public)纳入国家政治事务讨论(the discussion of the political affairs of the nation)的作家来说,会特别有吸引力(would be particularly attractive)。
如果潘恩对隐喻、措辞、句法和证据的选择(Paine’s choice of metaphors, diction, syntax, and evidence)对他的成功至关重要(were crucial to his success),那么他创造引人入胜的叙事的本领(his knack for creating compelling narratives)同样如此。虽然我们可以在大多数启蒙哲学中发现一种对叙事的偏好(a predilection for narrative in most Enlightenment philosophy)——卢梭、休谟和孟德斯鸠提供了一些很好的例子(Rousseau, Hume, and Montesquieu offer some good examples)——但似乎可以公允地说(it seems fair to say),潘恩比他的同时代人更大量地使用叙事(makes greater use of narrative than his contemporaries do)。潘恩不仅在他的文本中不断讲故事(constantly tell stories in his texts),他还刻意选择那些旨在让一般读者能够欣赏和理解的故事(ones that are designed for a general readership to enjoy and understand)。13 虽然《常识》(Common Sense)是一部政治哲学作品(a work of political philosophy),并且带有这一文类的许多标志(bears many of the marks of the genre),但它并不是以自己的论题开篇(does not open with its thesis)。事实上(Indeed),潘恩把论题陈述推迟到小册子的后面部分(defers the thesis statement until late in the pamphlet),从而制造了叙事悬念(thus creating narrative suspense)。这本小册子的标题当然没有提供任何重大线索(does not provide any major clues);而且事实上(indeed),对于购买第一版的读者来说,小册子标题页上没有任何内容宣布这篇文本的政治议程(announces the political agenda of the text)。标题页只呈现四个部分的标题(the headings of the four sections),这些标题读起来像政治理论和时事作品的题目(read like titles of works of political theory and current affairs):“论君主制与世袭继承”(“Of Monarchy and Hereditary Succession”),以及“论美洲目前的能力,并附若干杂项思考”(“Of the present ability of America, with some miscellaneous Reflections”)。第一版并没有收入“引言”(“Introduction”),那是他为布拉德福德版(the Bradford edition)所写的。即便是“引言”(“Introduction”),虽然为这本小册子的大致方向提供了一些强烈线索(provides some strong clues as to the general direction of the pamphlet),仍然没有提供一种直截了当的目的陈述(an outright statement of purpose);尽管到它出版时(by the time it was published),读者几乎不可能不知道它将要论证什么(it would have been virtually impossible for a reader not to know what it was going to argue)。潘恩首先想要抓住他的读者的注意力(capture his readers’ attention),并开始带着他们经历(work them through)支撑他的主要论证(underlying his main argument)的关键概念(key concepts),然后才用独立(independence)这样一种激进主张(radical proposition)同他们正面相对(confronting them)。那么,以一种他会在杂志中使用的同一种策略的版本(a version of the same strategy)来说,潘恩在给自己一个机会把读者吸引进(draw them into)他的叙事(narrative)之前,不会冒使读者疏离(alienating readers)的风险。
潘恩直到第三节《Thoughts on the Present State of American Affairs》才使他的关键主张(crucial claim)明白显露(make explicit):“一切正确而合理的东西(Everything that is right and reasonable)都为分离(separation)辩护。死者的鲜血(The blood of the slain)、自然的哭泣之声(the weeping voice of nature)在呼喊,‘是时候分开了(’TIS TIME TO PART)’”(66)。大写字体(capitalized typeface)把注意力引向这一点,把它作为这一段中、事实上也是这一节中的关键行(crucial line),但即使在这里,这一主张也不是以明确政治的术语(explicitly political terms)提出的。相反,潘恩首先以理性(rational)的术语——正确而合理(right and reasonable)——和情感(emotional)的术语——自然的哭泣之声(the weeping voice of nature)——来安置这个问题(casts the issue)。潘恩最后在最后一节中提出他的政治论证(makes his political case),在那里他以对独立不可避免性(inevitability of independence)的断言(assertion)开始,并以对正式独立宣言(formal declaration of independence)的呼吁(call)结束(76-77, 85)。因此,《常识》(Common Sense)的整体叙事(overall narrative)以指出英国君主制(English monarchy)的根本腐败(fundamental corruption)开始。那种腐败的一个主要后果(One major consequence)是,它导致对其臣民的虐待(mistreatment of its subjects)。潘恩然后继续表明(proceeds to show),英国宪法(English Constitution)中的这些制度性或结构性缺陷(institutional or structural flaws)如何使美国殖民者有必要(make it necessary)——因为没有其他方法来纠正它们(there is no other way to correct them)——切断他们同英格兰的政治联系(break their political ties with England),并建立(institute)一种更公正的政府形式(a more just form of government),即民主(democracy),来治理他们新形成的国家(newly formed nation)。这是一个有力的叙事(powerful narrative),因为各个部分(pieces)配合得如此之好,也因为它们把情感反应(emotional response)同对局势的智识或政治理解(intellectual or political understanding)整合在一起(integrate)。潘恩认识到(recognized),殖民者同母国(mother country)的联系(links)超越了(transcended)仅仅政治的或经济的东西,而包括一种同大不列颠(Great Britain)之间深深根植的个人认同感(profoundly ingrained sense of personal identification),他们大多数人源出于那里(whence most of them originated),并且他们仍然同那里保持着密切的家庭纽带(close family ties)。
这一论证的情感维度(emotional dimension)指向潘恩任务的重大程度(magnitude):他不仅必须说服(persuade)殖民者,断绝同英国君主制的关系(break with the English monarchy)在政治上和经济上都会是有益的(politically and economically beneficial),而且他还必须说服他们,把他们同英格兰连接起来的亲情纽带(affectionate bonds)已不再有正当根据(no longer warranted)。他怎样才能做到这一点,而不冒被指控为不忠(charge of disloyalty)的风险?美国人不想把自己想成忘恩负义者(ingrates)或母国的叛徒(traitors to the mother country),所以潘恩反过来改变局面(turns the tables),并论称英国政府已经通过它对殖民者的暴力和虐待性的对待(violent and abusive treatment)切断了那些纽带(severed those bonds)。然后,在最后两节中,他向美国人提供一种新的身份(new identity)、一种关于他们自己的新图景(new vision of themselves),在其中他们被变形为(metamorphosed into)一个主要的经济和军事强国(major economic and military power)。因此,这本小册子(pamphlet)的关键叙事(crucial narratives)之一,就是美国人民(American people)从一个虐待性父母(abusive parent)的受害者(victims)转变为自由与繁荣(freedom and prosperity)的行动者(agents)。这一关于个人解放(personal liberation)和实现(fulfillment)的叙事(narrative),也许甚至比这本小册子的政治主张(political claims)更甚,正是使《常识》(Common Sense)成为其反对者(opponents)如此难以反驳(counter)的一种文本的东西。
对《常识》(Common Sense)的反应
关于美国革命(American Revolution)最持久的通俗神话(persistent popular myths)之一,一直是这样一种信念(belief):它在国内(domestically)没有受到争议(uncontested),而事实上,即使在 1776 年的前半期,它也是大量争议和辩论(controversy and debate)的一个来源(source)。对潘恩的小册子(Paine’s pamphlet)来说,这一点同样真实(no less true),它很快成为费城报刊(Philadelphia press)中讨论的一个主要主题(major subject)。具有讽刺意味的是(Ironically),围绕《常识》(Common Sense)的第一场争执(first dispute)源自潘恩和贝尔之间的分歧(disagreement),即谁有权获得(was entitled to)这本小册子未曾预料到的(unanticipated)并且相当可观的利润(rather significant profits)。当贝尔和潘恩无法就如何分配利润(divide the profits)或谁拥有版权(owned the copyright)达成一致(could not agree on)时(显然(apparently)他们没有为这种偶然情形(eventuality)制定契约性规定(contractual provisions)),潘恩随即(promptly)去找一个竞争性的印刷商(competing printer)、布拉德福德兄弟(the Bradford Brothers),并同他们达成交易(made a deal),让他们印刷一个新的、改进的第二版(new and improved second edition)。14 布拉德福德兄弟会出版数版(several editions),其中会包括一篇新的导言(new introduction)、附录(appendix),以及一些其他文本变动(textual changes),这些变动被标识为(identified as)“作者所作的大量而有趣的增补(large and interesting additions by the author)”。15 计划(plan)是使贝尔的版本(Bell’s edition)显得过时(outdated)且不完整(incomplete)。贝尔在城中以他的机敏(cleverness)和好斗(feistiness)著称,他以自己的一版第二版(a second edition of his own)作出回应(responded)。在他为这个新版所作的广告(advertisement)中,贝尔对《常识》(Common Sense)的作者作出一系列恶毒攻击(vitriolic attacks),这看起来要么是一种奇怪的销售策略(odd sales strategy),要么是对这样一点的承认(recognition):的确(indeed),并不存在所谓坏宣传(bad press)。几天之后,贝尔的攻击(Bell’s attack)和潘恩的一篇回应(a response from Paine)会占据《晚邮报》(Evening Post)整个背面版面(entire back page)。在又一次试图利用《常识》(Common Sense)的成功(capitalize on the success)并同时攻击其作者的尝试中(while simultaneously attacking its author),贝尔在二月下旬宣布(announced)出版一卷题为《〈常识〉增补》(Additions to Common Sense)的书。此卷将由“从报纸中取出的篇章(Pieces taken out of News Papers),且并非由《常识》(COMMON SENSE)作者所写”构成。16 潘恩和布拉德福德兄弟(the Bradford brothers)继而(in turn)会发行第三版(issue a third edition)(这里重印的版本),这本如今无处不在的(ubiquitous)小册子。这些冲突(conflicts)确保(insured)潘恩的小册子在 1776 年的前六个月会一直是公共注意(public attention)和讨论(discussion)的主题,并因此开始塑造(shape)围绕殖民地在这一危机时刻(moment of crisis)的未来而展开的大部分讨论。
三月,贝尔会通过出版《明白真理》(Plain Truth)把这场争端(dispute)推进得更远,这本小册子公开反对(openly opposes)潘恩关于同英格兰分离(separation from England)的呼吁。尽管《明白真理》(Plain Truth)由詹姆斯·查尔默斯(James Chalmers)以“坎迪杜斯”(Candidus)这一笔名(pseudonym)写成,远没有《常识》(Common Sense)有效(effective)或受欢迎(popular),但贝尔出版它这一事实既证明了(is evidence both of)他的商业精明(business savvy),也证明了关于殖民地同不列颠关系未来的这场争论(argument)已经在何种程度上成为激烈争执(intense contention)的主题,而问题双方(both sides of the question)都有相当大的支持(considerable support)。多亏了《常识》(Common Sense),印刷商可以指望(count on)任何处理独立问题(treated the matter of independence)的出版物都会广泛销售(sell widely)。贝尔是一个太过精明的商人(canny businessman),除非他相信《明白真理》(Plain Truth)会有相当数量的读者(significant audience),否则不会出版它。查尔默斯的小册子试图对潘恩的论证(Paine’s arguments)作系统的逐点反驳(systematic point-by-point refutation)。查尔默斯并不是建构(construct)一个他自己的叙事(narrative)来说明(illustrate)并说服(persuade)读者和解(reconciliation)的好处(advantages),而是让他的读者参照(refers his readers to)《常识》(Common Sense)中作出的各种段落(various passages)或主张(claims),然后提出削弱(undermine)潘恩论证(Paine’s arguments)的尝试(attempts)。这也是查尔斯·英格利斯(Charles Inglis)的《以若干严格批评一本题为〈常识〉的小册子的方式公正陈述美国的真正利益》(The True Interest of America Impartially Stated in Certain Strictures on a Pamphlet Entitled Common Sense)的方法(approach)。英格利斯完全放弃(dispenses with)论文形式(essay format),并向他的读者呈现(presents)一份编号列出的清单(numbered list),列出潘恩小册子中有缺陷的(flawed)或错误的(mistaken)论证(arguments)。暂且不论(aside)潘恩、查尔默斯或英格利斯所提出的实际主张(actual claims)的优点(merits),《常识》(Common Sense)是被设计来诉诸(appeal to)其读者的心灵与理智(hearts and minds),并因此通过使他们的激情(passions)连同他们的理性(reason)一起被牵动(engaging),而推动他们走向反叛(move them to revolt)。无论《明白真理》(Plain Truth)还是《真正利益》(The True Interest),都不能撤销(undo)潘恩文本的效果(effect),除非它们能够向殖民者提供一种更有说服力的叙事(more compelling narrative),来抵消(offset)他们由于《常识》(Common Sense)而已经开始相信的、关于他们自己以及世界上政府未来的那个故事(story)的力量(force)。潘恩已经使美国殖民者成为一个跨历史的国际戏剧(transhistoric international drama)中的关键行动者(crucial actors),在这个戏剧中,人类的未来(future of humanity)取决于(hinged on)他们决定从大不列颠(Great Britain)取得他们的独立(gain their independence),并采纳一种民主的政府形式(adopt a democratic form of government)。
除了引发(provoking)这些小册子的出版(publication)之外,《常识》(Common Sense)还激发了(inspired)费城报纸(Philadelphia newspapers)中一场活跃的辩论(lively debate)。这些交锋(exchanges)中最有意思的一场,开始于潘恩从前的一个同事(former associates)威廉·史密斯(William Smith)发表的一系列信件(series of letters),他曾经是《宾夕法尼亚杂志》(Pennsylvania Magazine)的一名经常撰稿人(regular contributor)。史密斯以“卡托”(Cato)这一笔名(pseudonym)写作,他是费城学院(College of Philadelphia)的院长(Provost),也是一位知名的圣公会牧师(noted Anglican minister),并宣称(asserts)他支持和解(reconciliation)。在前三封信中,“卡托”(Cato)从不处理(addresses)潘恩论证的细节(details),甚至也不直接提到(refers to)《常识》(Common Sense);相反,他的主要目标(main target)是大陆会议(Continental Congress),他间接指控(indirectly accuses)它篡夺(usurping)宾夕法尼亚议会(Pennsylvania Assembly)的权威(authority)。“卡托”(Cato)还花费大量精力(significant amount of energy)讨论报刊(press)及其在政治事务(political affairs)中的新角色(new role)。事实上,他开篇信件(opening letter)的最初几段(first few paragraphs)暗示(suggest)他相当关心(concerned about)公众(public)在国家事务(affairs of the state)中不断变化的角色(changing role)。他似乎总是对这些变化(changes)有些不自在(somewhat uncomfortable)。例如,第一篇(first number)的第四段以这一陈述(statement)开头:“既然报刊(Press)终于变得如此自由(so free),以至于这样的出版物(publications)在一边被认为是可以容忍的(tolerable),那么它在另一边也同样自由(equally free),尤其是在有指控需要回答(charges are to be answered)、清白需要辩护(innocence defended)的地方,这不能不被判定为合理(reasonable)”(letter no. 1)。这个句子的开头从句(opening clause),尤其是附着在“自由”(free)上的修饰语(modifier)“如此”(so),暴露出他这一方的一种惶恐感(sense of trepidation),甚至是不赞同(disapproval)。事实上,整个陈述(whole statement)都带有一种防御性(defensiveness)的色彩,这暗示史密斯正在承担这项向公众发言(addressing the public)的任务,尽管他首先并不完全确定公众是否应该在这件事情上拥有发声权(have a voice)。在几乎每一封信中,“卡托”(Cato)都会包括某种对人民判断力(judgment of the people)的讥刺(jibe),而且常常同对精英统治(elite rule)的辩护结合在一起。例如,在他第一次向《常识》(Common Sense)发起攻击(sally)时,他想知道:“这个方案(scheme)是由哪些有分量的人(men of consequence)支持的,或者是否由任何这样的人支持,也许可能成为进一步探究(further enquiry)的主题”(letter no. 3)。其含义(implication)是,对这本小册子的民众支持(popular support)并不相关(irrelevant)。只有当“有分量的人”(men of consequence)宣布他们的支持时,这一文本在政治上才变得有意义(meaningful)。
潘恩以“森林人”(The Forester)这一笔名(pseudonym)发表的一系列文章回应了“卡托”(Cato)。值得注意的是(Significantly),前两封“森林人书信”(Forester’s Letters)的焦点(focus),与其说是在史密斯关于同大不列颠和解(reconciliation with Great Britain)的可欲性(desirability)的论证上,不如说更是在史密斯关于公共辩论(public debate)性质的看法上。潘恩转向公共交换(public exchange)的条件(terms)的策略(strategy)是很有说明性的(telling)。正如他把宣布脱离不列颠独立(declaring independence from Britain)的问题转变为一个主张以民主(democracy)取代君主制统治(monarchical rule)的机会一样,17 在《常识》(Common Sense)中,他现在把史密斯对他小册子的攻击这一场合(occasion)当作一个机会,用公开公共辩论(open public debate)的形式来断言民主的价值(values of democracy)。这将成为潘恩政治写作(political writings)的标志之一(hallmarks):在每一个机会里,他都会回到民众统治(popular rule)这个问题,把它作为塑造所有其他问题的基础性问题(foundational question)。这种方法(approach)在《人的权利》(Rights of Man)中最为明显,但它也是推动《理性时代》(The Age of Reason)的中心论证(central argument)。具有讽刺意味的是,潘恩已经赢得了这场辩论,因为在史密斯或查尔默斯认为有必要发表一篇针对普通读者群(general readership)的对潘恩的攻击的那一刻,他们就在含蓄地承认(implicitly acknowledging)人民在政治中的力量(power of the people)。18 潘恩方法(Paine’s approach)的妙处(beauty)在于,他为他的反对者(opponents)制造了这种双重束缚(double bind)。如果他们无视他,他们必定会因为潘恩的说服技巧(skills of persuasion)而冒输掉论证(losing the argument)的风险;但如果他们同他争论,他们就是在承认一个广泛阅读公众(broad reading public)的重要性(importance),从而让出(conceding)他的关键点(key point)。最终,潘恩的策略(strategy)迫使他的反对者按照他的条件(on his terms)作战,而这使他们处于一种明显的不利地位(distinct disadvantage)。
当查尔默斯(Chalmers)和史密斯(Smith)这样的效忠派(Loyalists)攻击潘恩对同英格兰永久政治分离(permanent political separation from England)的倡导(advocacy)时,其他批评者(critics)会同这本小册子(pamphlet)的某些部分争论(quarrel with),即使他们认可(endorsed)其更广泛的目标(broader aims)。最显著的是(Most notably),约翰·亚当斯(John Adams)感到不得不回应(felt compelled to respond to)潘恩关于这个新国家政府(new nation’s government)的激进民主图景(radically democratic vision)。在《常识》(Common Sense)中,潘恩勾勒出(outlines)一种政府,它在其他事项之外(among other things),以年度选举(annual elections)和单院立法机构(single-house legislature)为特征(features)。这两项措施(measures)都旨在(are designed to)使政府对选民(electorate)更负责任(more accountable),并因此增加人民对其代表(representatives)的权力。亚当斯深切担心(deeply concerned),这本小册子在独立问题(question of independence)上的影响(influence)会延伸到(extend to)新各州所采纳(adopted)的政府制度(system of government)。所以他匿名(anonymously)出版了《论政府》(Thoughts on Government),在其中他断言(asserts)“共和的”(“republican”)(反对民主的〔against democratic〕)政府形式(forms of government)的价值。他对潘恩的民众权力模式(model of popular power)的不安(discomfort),在他关于“好政府”(“good government”)的开篇假设(opening assumption)中很明显:“那么,第一个必要步骤(first necessary step),就是把权力从多数人委托给(depute power from the many to)少数最有智慧和最善良的人(the few of the most wise and good)”(2-3)。这正是潘恩想要削弱(undermine)的那种精英主义政府模式(elitist model of government)。亚当斯随后批评“单一议会”(“single-assembly”)政府,认为它是政府腐败(corruption)的一个来源,实质上是因为它们会受制于一种暴民心态(mob mentality)。尽管他试探性地认可(tentatively endorses)年度选举(annual elections),他也很快指出,它们只应维持到它们“被发现不便(should be found inconvenient)”为止,到那时任期(terms)可以延长,甚至延长为终身(to life)。潘恩的政府建立在一种基本信念(basic belief)之上,即人民有能力治理他们自己(govern themselves);而亚当斯的提议(proposals)则以这样一种假设为前提(are premised on the assumption):人民的影响(people’s influence)应当在结构上受到限制(structurally limited),以确保那些能够具有德性和智慧(capable of virtue and wisdom)的经过挑选的“少数人”(select “few”)将行使权力(exercise power)。
《常识》(Common Sense)激发了效忠派(Loyalists)和爱国者(Patriots)双方充满激情的回应(passionate responses),并在塑造(shaping)关于殖民地未来(future of the colonies)的辩论(debate)中发挥了不可或缺的作用(played an integral role)。由它激发的公共辩论(public debates)说明了(illustrate)这样一种程度(degree):《常识》(Common Sense)既是正在出现的印刷世界(emerging world of print)的产物(product),也是它的一个主要促成者(major contributor)。潘恩的小册子(pamphlet)通过它参与(participation)一个新近出现的公共领域(newly emergent public sphere)来断言(asserted)它的权威(authority),在这个公共领域中,观念(ideas)流通(circulated)、被交换(were exchanged),并同一个现在感觉自身在塑造(shaping)政治、社会和经济政策(political, social, and economic policy)中有重要角色要扮演(significant role to play)的阅读公众(reading public)竞争优势地位(competed for ascendancy)。随着书籍(books)、杂志(magazines)、报纸(newspapers)、小册子(pamphlets)以及其他形式的印刷材料(printed matter)在十八世纪英美世界(eighteenth-century Anglo-American world)中变得可为越来越多的人获得(accessible to increasing numbers of people),印刷文化(print culture)开始在传播(dissemination)关于政府(government)、民主(democracy)和人民政治权利(political rights of the people)的新观念与态度(new ideas and attitudes)方面发挥关键作用(crucial role)。这些正是将会充当美国革命(American Revolution)基础(foundation)的那些观念;在这场革命中,文字(words)发挥了非同寻常且前所未有的作用(extraordinary and unprecedented role)。要使公共辩论(public debate)成为可能,它首先需要一个愿意辩论的公众(public willing to debate),并且需要一种接受(acceptance):即可以采纳多种解决办法(a variety of solutions could be adopted)来解决任何给定的问题(any given problem)。潘恩到达费城(Philadelphia)时,正处在历史上的这样一个时刻(moment in history):普通人民(common people)在国家事务(affairs of state)中拥有一种正当声音(legitimate voice)这一观念(notion)开始获得广泛接受(wide acceptance),而报刊(press)既正在受益于(benefiting from)一种公共辩论与交流的文化(culture of public debate and exchange),也正在帮助培育(helping to foster)它。潘恩会成为人民参与公共领域的权利(people’s right to participate in the public sphere)的一名有效倡导者(effective advocate),这在不小程度上(in no small measure)要归功于他操纵并利用(manipulate and exploit)正在出现的印刷文化(emerging culture of print)的异乎寻常的能力(uncanny ability)。换言之(Put another way),潘恩写作论战文字(write polemic)的倾向(tendency)植根于(was grounded in)一种欲望(desire):推动对文化中流通的关键观念(key ideas circulating in the culture)的公共讨论(public discussion);而这反过来(in turn),他理解为会增加人民之声(voice of the people)在塑造国家(shaping the nation)的重要辩论(important debates)中的纳入(inclusion)。
人民之声的影响(impact of the people’s voice)将会被看见(would be seen),即便不是直接地(if not directly),也肯定是间接地(certainly indirectly),在《独立宣言》(Declaration of Independence)以及早期建国时期(early national period)的其他文件(documents)中。《独立宣言》(Declaration of Independence)的语言(language),由托马斯·杰斐逊(Thomas Jefferson)起草(drafted)并由大陆会议(Continental Congress)编辑(edited),如此紧密地呼应(echoes)潘恩小册子的修辞(rhetoric)和观念(ideas),以至于一些历史学家(historians)已经论称(argued)潘恩实际上撰写了(actually authored)《独立宣言》。尽管潘恩并没有写《独立宣言》,杰斐逊无疑钦佩(surely admired)潘恩的小册子,而两人很快会成为政治盟友(political allies)和朋友。潘恩对宾夕法尼亚(Pennsylvania)的影响(influence)被更直接地感受到(more directly felt)。如今已经独立(Now independent),十三个新州(thirteen new states)需要撰写新的宪法(new constitutions),以形成它们自己的政府(form their own governments)。在宾夕法尼亚,潘恩的仰慕者(Paine’s admirers)会成功地写成并批准(writing and ratifying)一部州宪法(state constitution),它比其他州所采纳的那些宪法(those adopted by the other states)更加激进地平等主义(far more radically egalitarian),并且更加回应人民(responsive to the people)。为了实现这一目的(achieve this end)而设计的一些措施(measures)是年度选举(annual elections)和单院制立法机构(unicameral legislature),这两者都是潘恩曾在《常识》(Common Sense)中呼吁过的(called for)。许多宾夕法尼亚人(Pennsylvanians)认为他们的新宪法(new constitution)太激进(too radical)。正如戈登·伍德(Gordon Wood),共和国早期政治(politics of early republic)最重要的历史学家(foremost historians)之一,所说的:“对于各地都浸透在混合政府理论(theory of mixed government)中的美国人(Americans)来说,尤其是对于被绕开的宾夕法尼亚绅士阶层(bypassed gentry of Pennsylvania)来说,由 1776 年宾夕法尼亚制宪会议(1776 Pennsylvania Convention)产生的宪法(Constitution)是一个政治怪物(political monster),只配被仁慈地处死(mercifully put to death)”(233)。1790 年,宾夕法尼亚宪法(Pennsylvania Constitution)的反对者(opponents)终于成功地用一部宪法(constitution)取代了它,这部宪法恢复了混合政府(reinstated mixed government),并使绅士阶层(gentry)回到他们在该州政治事务(political affairs of the state)中的显要地位(position of prominence)。潘恩及其追随者(followers)关于政府(government)的观念在宾夕法尼亚也许并未持续很久,但我们只能疑惑(wonder),它们是否本会产生一种能够运转的激进民主政府(functional radical democratic government)。
潘恩的影响(influence)很快会在宾夕法尼亚和新的美利坚合众国(United States of America)边界之外很远的地方被感受到。他会利用他的首部美国小册子(inaugural American pamphlet)的成功,把自己弹射进(catapult himself into)那个新的文字世界(world of letters)中的一个主要角色(major role),这个世界并不受民族或政治边界(national or political boundaries)的限制。在不久的将来(near future),他会撰写一系列文章(series of articles),旨在激励美国公众(American public)和士兵(soldiers)投入他们反对英格兰的战争努力(war effort against England),即《美国危机》(American Crisis)。在《危机》(Crisis)系列文章中,他以“常识”(“Common Sense”)这一笔名(pseudonym)写作,我们看到潘恩使用了许多使《常识》(Common Sense)如此有效(effective)的同样策略(same tactics)。同时,我们看到他利用他通过自己的小册子(pamphlet)获得的权威(authority),继续推广(promote)一个有见识的(informed)、拥有选举权的(enfranchised)并且充满活力的公众(energetic public)的优势(advantages)。《常识》(Common Sense)在把这个国家带到宣布其独立(declared its independence)并断言一套新的政治价值(asserted a new set of political values)的地步(point)上,已经发挥了重要作用(played an important role),但仍然还有一场战争要赢得(war to be won)。对潘恩而言,这只是开始。在接下来的二十年里(next two decades),他会努力(endeavor)在法国和英格兰也促成革命性变革(bring about revolutionary change)。《常识》(Common Sense)的核心观念(core ideas)会在《人的权利》(Rights of Man)和《理性时代》(The Age of Reason)中得到发展并被重新构想(developed and reimagined),因为潘恩试图推翻(overturn)那些旧的权威结构(old structures of authority),正是这些结构曾服务于维持少数人对多数人的任意统治(arbitrary rule of the few over the many)。
Works Cited
Adams, John. Thoughts on Government. Applicable to the Present State of the American Colonies. In a Letter from a Gentleman to his Friend. Philadelphia: John Dunlap, 1776.
Bailyn, Bernard. The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution. Cambridge: Belknap, 1967.
—. To Begin the World Anew: The Genius and Ambiguities of the American Founders. New York: Knopf, 2003.
Barnes, Elizabeth. States of Sympathy: Seduction and Democracy in the American Novel. New York: Columbia UP, 1997.
Bushman, Richard. The Refinement of America: Persons, Houses, Cities. New York: Vintage, 1992.
Butler, Jon. Becoming America: The Revolution before 1776. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 2000.
Candidus [James Chalmers]. Plain Truth; Addressed to the Inhabitants of America. Philadelphia: Bell, 1776.
Davidson, Cathy N. Revolution and the Word: The Rise of the Novel in America. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1986.
Fliegelman, Jay. Declaring Independence: Jefferson, Natural Language, & the Culture of Performance. Stanford: Stanford UP, 1993.
Foner, Eric. Tom Paine and Revolutionary America. New York: Oxford UP, 1976.
Franklin, Benjamin. The Autobiography and other Writings. New York: Penguin, 1986.
Greene, Jack P. Pursuits of Happiness: The Social Development of Early Modern British Colonies and the Formation of American Culture. Chapel Hill: North Carolina UP, 1988.
Holton, Woody. Forced Founders: Indians, Debtors, Slaves, and the Making of the American Revolution in Virginia. Chapel Hill: North Carolina UP for the Omohundro Institute for Early American History and Culture, 1999.
Inglis, Charles. The True Interest of America Impartially Stated, in Certain Strictures on a Pamphlet Entitled Common Sense. 2nd ed. Humphreys: Philadelphia, 1776.
Keane, John. Tom Paine: A Political Life. Boston: Little, Brown, 1995.
Mott, Frank Luther. A History of American Magazines, 1741-1850. New York: Appleton, 1930.
Paine, Thomas. “The Case of the Officers of Excise.” The Complete Writings of Thomas Paine. Ed. Philip S. Foner. 2 vols. New York: Citadel, 1969.
The Pennsylvania Magazine; or, American Monthly Museum (January 1775-July 1776).
The Pennsylvania Evening Post, and Public Advertiser (1776).
Rose, Mark. Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1993.
Randolph, Edmund. “Essay on the Revolutionary History of Virginia, 1774-1782.” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 43.4 (1935): 294-315.
Smith, Adam. The Theory of Moral Sentiments. Ed. D.D. Raphael and A.L. Macfie. Indianapolis: Liberty, 1976.
—. An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Oxford: Clarendon, 1976.
Traubel, Horace. With Walt Whitman in Camden. Vol 1 (28 March 1888-14 July 1888). New York: Appleton, 1908.
Washington, George. The Papers of George Washington. Revolutionary War Series. Ed. Philander D. Chase. 9 vols. Charlottesville: Virginia UP, 1985-99.
Wills, Garry. Inventing America: Jefferson’s Declaration of Independence. New York: Vintage, 1979.
Wood, Gordon. The Creation of the American Republic, 1776-1787. New York: Norton, 1969.
- Keane,第 108—110 页(Keane, 108–110)。 ↩
- 虽然这场冲突采取了一连串分歧的形式(took the shape of a series of disagreements),这些分歧涉及英国政府一方的征税和其他规章(taxation and other regulations on the part of the English government),其中最著名的是《印花税法》(The Stamp Act)和汤森税法(The Townsend Duties),但这些单独的事件全都是殖民地与帝国中心(the imperial center)之间关系发生更大破裂(a larger breakdown)的征兆(symptomatic of)。此外,对殖民者来说,这一连串接连发生(coming in close succession)的争端(disputes)可能感觉起来更像是一场长期冲突(one prolonged conflict)。 ↩
- 潘恩只受过有限的正规教育(limited formal education)。他的父母在他七岁到十二岁期间送他去文法学校(grammar school)。在他十二岁时,他的父母决定让他到父亲那里当学徒(be apprenticed to his father),从事紧身胸衣制作行业(staymaking profession,也就是制作鲸须紧身胸衣 making whalebone corsets),因此他不能再继续上学。 ↩
- 参见 Jack P. Greene 的《幸福的追求》(Pursuits of Happiness)和 Richard Bushman 的《美国的精致化》(The Refinement of America),这两本书是这一观点的两个经典表述(classic articulations of this viewpoint)。十八世纪美国文化与英国文化之间的相似或不同(similarity or difference),是历史学家之间一个有很多争论的问题(a subject of much debate)。几十年来,美国例外论(American exceptionalism)——即认为美国文化与世界上任何其他社会都有根本不同(fundamentally different)的信念——主导了美国历史和文学研究(dominated the study of American history and literature)。在过去大约 20 年中,美国例外论已经受到审视和质疑(has come under scrutiny)。部分由于潘恩本人在革命中所扮演角色(Paine’s own role in the Revolution)的证据,本文作者倾向于相信,殖民地与母国(the mother country)并没有那么不同。然而,关于最近两个持不同意见的例子(dissenting views),可参见 Bernard Bailyn 的《重新开始世界》(To Begin the World Anew)和 Jon Butler 的《成为美国:1776 年以前的革命》(Becoming America: The Revolution before 1776)。 ↩
- 事实上,这种虚构观念(fiction)主要是民族身份幻想(fantasies of national identity)的产物;这些幻想是在革命刚结束后的那些年里,由知识和政治领袖(intellectual and political leaders)创造出来的,他们觉得有必要把这个新国家同它与英国的历史关系区分开来并拉开距离(differentiate and distance the new nation from its historical relationship with Britain)。 ↩
- 詹姆斯·弗格森(James Ferguson,1710–76)和本杰明·马丁(Benjamin Martin,1704–82)是十八世纪英国最著名、最有学识的巡回科学讲师(the most celebrated and knowledgeable itinerant science lecturers)之一。这两个人走遍不列颠群岛(traveled across the British Isles),向付费听众(paying audiences)讲授并演示(delivering lectures and demonstrations)最新的科学和技术进展(the latest scientific and technological advances)。他们尤其重要,是因为他们促进了牛顿理论的广泛传播(contributors to the wide dissemination of Newton’s theories)。 ↩
- 在十八世纪,全国性新闻出版体系(the national press)这一现象尚未出现(had not yet emerged)。大多数出版物只在印刷它们的城市内流通(circulated within the city in which they were printed)。在殖民地,这一点尤其明显,因为印刷商和书商的网络(networks of printers and booksellers)尚未正式成形(had not been formalized)。所以,波士顿、纽约、费城以及较小的城镇,主要依赖当地印刷商提供报纸、小册子、历书和其他出版物。书籍的流通范围更广,但殖民地的大多数书籍都是从伦敦进口的;伦敦是英美世界的出版中心(the publishing capital of the Anglo-American world)。这也意味着,美国人在十八世纪、甚至一直到十九世纪相当晚的时候(well into the nineteenth century)所阅读的大多数书籍,都是英国作者写的。 ↩
- E. Foner, 19–21. ↩
- 文学史学者(Literary historians)通常认为塞缪尔·约翰逊(Samuel Johnson)是十八世纪英格兰第一位职业作家(the first professional writer)。直到十八世纪末以前(up until the end of the eighteenth century),大多数作家都依靠赞助人(depended on patrons)来获得支持。随着图书业的扩张和自由化(the expansion and liberalization of the book trade),以及出版业中某些重大的法律转变(major legal transformations in publishing),追求一种不依赖赞助人影响的写作职业(pursue a career as a writer independent of the influence of a patron)变得可能——虽然仍然非常困难。在美国,查尔斯·布罗克登·布朗(Charles Brockden Brown)会在十八世纪最后十年尝试开启职业作家的生涯(launch a career as a professional writer),但最终失败。詹姆斯·费尼莫尔·库珀(James Fenimore Cooper)大概是第一位能够从自己的出版物中赚到足够的钱(make enough money from his publications)、从而把写作作为全职事业来追求(pursue writing as a full time career)的美国作家。关于十八世纪英国和美国出版与作者身份(publishing and authorship)更全面的分析(a more comprehensive analysis),可参见 Mark Rose 的《作者与所有者》(Authors and Owners)以及 Cathy N. Davidson 的《革命与文字》(Revolution and the Word)。 ↩
- 在《同情的状态》(States of Sympathy)中,伊丽莎白·巴恩斯(Elizabeth Barnes)通过解读《常识》(Common Sense)论证说:“潘恩的修辞提出以同情作为民主社会的基础(Paine’s rhetoric proposes sympathy as the basis of democratic society)”(30)。我们可以在这些关于婚姻的作品(these pieces on marriage)中看到一个早期版本(an early version):同情将在潘恩后来的社会和政治论证(Paine’s later social and political arguments)中发挥作用(the role that sympathy will play)。 ↩
- 探讨《独立宣言》中这些观念的政治起源(the political origins of the ideas in the Declaration of Independence)的书目太长,无法在这里列全(far too long to include here),但一些不错的入门书目(some good places to begin)包括:Garry Wills 的 Inventing America,Jay Fliegelman 的 Declaring Independence,Woody Holton 的 Forced Founders,以及 Bernard Bailyn 的 Ideological Origins of the American Revolution。 ↩
- 潘恩所使用的同情观念(The notion of sympathy that Paine employs),最著名的是由苏格兰启蒙运动理论家(the Scottish Enlightenment theorist)亚当·斯密(Adam Smith)在他的《道德情操论》(Theory of Moral Sentiments,1759)中加以理论化的(was most notably theorized)。当然,斯密也写了更有名的经济学论著(economic treatise)《国富论》(The Wealth of Nations,1776)。 ↩
- 这可能就是为什么在很大程度上(for the most part),哲学家们没有认真对待他(philosophers haven’t taken him seriously)的一个原因。他的散文并不像哲学写作(His prose does not resemble philosophical writing)。 ↩
- 在十八世纪,出版业(publishing business)正经历大量流动(a great deal of flux)。例如,手稿(manuscripts)的所有权(ownership)——也就是我们今天会称为知识产权(intellectual property)的东西——正在刚刚从印刷商(printers)转移到作者(authors)。在十八世纪之前,以及本世纪最初几十年中发生的印刷爆炸(explosion of print)之前,作者把他们的手稿以及他们对内容的权利(rights to the contents)卖给印刷商,主要是因为印刷商承担了所有财务风险(financial risks),但也出于文化原因(cultural reasons)。在十八世纪过程中,若干支配印刷商、作者和政府之间关系的规约(protocols)会显著改变。很难知道潘恩和贝尔之间到底发生了什么,但几乎可以肯定的是,他们的分歧部分地是由支配印刷和出版(print and publication)的规则持续变化所造成的不确定性(uncertainty)的产物(product)。关于十八世纪英格兰印刷世界(world of print)的法律与文化转变(legal and cultural transformation)的一个引人入胜的说明(fascinating account),参见马克·罗斯(Mark Rose)的《作者与所有者》(Authors and Owners)。 ↩
- 《晚邮报》(Evening Post),费城,1776 年 1 月 25 日。这些变动从轻微的文本校正(minor textual corrections)到更重要的修订(more significant emendations)不等,例如删除“由一个英格兰人所写(written by an Englishman)”,并用对作者中立性(neutrality)的断言(assertion)替代它:“他同任何党派都没有联系(he is unconnected with any party)”。 ↩
- 《晚邮报》(Evening Post),费城,1776 年 2 月 20 日。 ↩
- 殖民地并没有什么必要理由(necessary reason)不能分离并按照英格兰的模式(model of England)建立一种君主立宪制(constitutional monarchy)。如果这场争执(quarrel)被纯粹理解为一个代表权(representation)问题,那么殖民者并没有质疑(question)那些在议会两院(Houses of Parliament)拥有议员的英格兰人所享有的代表权的合法性(legitimacy)。 ↩
- 这并不是说先前的政治制度(prior political systems)不必严肃对待大众(masses)的关切,而是说,如今人民的幸福(happiness)与繁荣(prosperity),以及他们关于政府功能(function of government)的信念(beliefs),已经以它们在十八世纪以前一般并不具有的方式变得相关(relevant)。 ↩